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PALESTINE

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SYRIA.

HANDBOOK FOR TRAVELLERS

EDITBD BY

K. BAEDEKER

WITH

EIGHTEEN MAPS, FORTY-THREE PLANS,

A

PANORAMA OF JBRUSALBM

AND

TBN TIEWS.

LEIPSIC : KARL BAEDEKER.

LONDON: DULAU AND CO. 37. SOHO SQUARE, W. 1876.

All Rights Reserved.

'Go, little book, God send thee good passage, And specially let this be thy pray«re Unto them all that thee will read or hear, Where thou art wrong, after their help to call Thee to correct in any part or all.'

Chaucer.

PREFACE.

The present volume is one of a series of Handbooks for the East now in course of preparation, and designed, like the Editor's European handbooks , for the guidance of travellers. For the greater part of its contents the Editor gratefully acknowledges his obligation to several Orientalists and scholars of great eminence.

The chief writer of the Handbook for Palestine and Syria has been Dr. Albert Socin, Professor of Oriental Languages at Bale, who has not only repeatedly travelled and studied in the Holy Land, but recently made a tour in that country for the express purpose of preparing the pre- sent Handbook. Those who are already acquainted with the country will best appreciate the zeal and energy with which Professor Socin has executed his laborious task.

The Editor has also himself recently explored the greater part of the country described for the purpose of supplementing the information procured by Professor Socin and other contributors, and many of the data afforded by the Handbook have either been founded upon, or cor- rected from , his personal observation. While the utmost possible pains have been bestowed on the work , it must necessarily contain many imperfections , as travelling in the East is attended with far greater difficulty than in Europe, and as, moreover , some of the most valuable

VI PREFACE.

recent discoveries are still unpublished. The Editor there- fore respectfully craves the indulgence of his readers, and begs that they will kindly favour him with any additional information it may be in their power to contribute, especially if the result of their own experience, as many of them have so generously done in the case of his European handbooks.

The Maps and Plans have been an object of the Edi- tor's special care , as he knows by experience how little reliance can be placed on guidance or information sought from the natives, even when the traveller is thoroughly conversant with their language. . Most of the maps and plans have been drawn or revised by Professor H. Kiepert, of Berlin, the well known cartographer, while some of them are based on surveys recently made by him in Palestine and hitherto unpublished. The plans of Yafa and Beirut and the small maps of the environs of these towns are from surveys specially made for the present Handbook. Almost the only tolerable map on a large scale (1 : 450,000) as yet published is that of Van de Velde, but it is confidently believed that the maps in the Hand- book will suffice for the requirements of all ordinary tra- vellers. At the beginning of the book will be found a map showing the usual routes by which the Holy Land is approached, and at the end a clue map indicating the ground covered by the special maps distributed throughout the volume.

The Panorama of Jerusalem, based on the most recent photographic views, is probably the most complete and accurate yet published.

Heights (above the sea-level) are given in English feet, from the most recent and trustworthy English and other sources.

PREFACE. VII

The Prices and various items of expenditure mentioned In the Handbook are those which were paid by the Author and by the Editor themselves. It must, however, be observed that they are liable to very great fluctuations, being influenced by the state of trade , the increased or diminished influx of foreigners, the traveller's own demeanour, and a number of other circumstances. It may therefore happen in some cases that the traveller's expenditure will be within the rate indicated in the Hand- book ; but for so long a journey, on which so many unex- pected contingencies may arise, an ample pecuniary margin should always be allowed.

Since the publication of the German edition of the Handbook in June, 187 5,? and during the preparation of the English edition, the Editor has had the benefit of many valuable suggestions from various friends and cor- respondents. To the English edition, moreover, have been added the new routes through Northern Syria as far as Aleppo and Adana. The botanical notices have been carefully revised by Dr. J. D. Hooker, C. B., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Several important notes have also been received from Lieut. C. R. Conder, R. E., of the Palestine Exploration Fund. To these and other dis- tinguished contributors the Editor tenders his grateful acknowledgments .

CONTENTS.

Page

I. Preliminary Information 1

(1) Plan of Journey. Season. Companions. Boutes 1

(2) Expenses. Letters of Credit. Money. Weights

and Measures 6

(3) Passports and Custom-House 9

(4) Consulates 9

(5) Steamboats 10

(6) Mode of Travelling 14

(7) Equipment. Health 23

(8) Beggars. Bakhshish 26

(9) Public Safety. Weapons. Military and Beduin

Escorts. Dogs 27

(10) Hotels. Monasteries. Hospitality. Khans ... 28

(11) Cafes 29

(12) Baths 30

(13) Bazaars 32

(14) Tobacco 33

(15) Mosques 33

(16) Dwelling-Houses 35

(17) Rules for Intercourse with Orientals 36

(18) Post Office and Telegraph 38

II. Geographical Notice 38

Geography 38

Climate 41

Geology 43

Flora 44

Fauna 49

III. Population , Divisions, and Names of Syria at different

periods 52

IV. History of Palestine and Syria 56

Chronological Table 72

V. Present Population and Statistics of Syria. — P>eligions 82

VI. Doctrines of El-Islam 89

Customs of the Mohammedans 101

X CONTENTS.

Page

VII. The Arabic Language 103

Arabic Vocabulary 107

VIII. History of Art in Syria 115

IX. Works descriptive of Jerusalem and Palestine .... 122 Route

1. Yafa 126

2. From Yafa to Jerusalem 132

a. From Yafa to Ramleh 132

1. From Yafa to Ramleh direct 132

2. From Yafa to Ramleh by Lydda 135

b. From Ramleh to Jerusalem 137

1. From Ramleh to Jerusalem direct 137

2. From Ramleh to Jerusalem by Kefr Tab and Bet Nuba . 141

3. From Lydda to Jerusalem by Jimzu and El-Kubebeh . . 141

4. From Lydda to Jerusalem by Bet rUr and El-Jib . . . 142

3. Jerusalem 144

History 146

Topography, Population, etc 160

The Haram esh-Sherif 164

History ■ • ■ A 164

Gates of the Haram 167

The Dome of "the Rock (Kubbet es-Sakhra) 169

The Dome of the Chain (Kubbet es-Sil'seleh). Kubbet el-Mi'raj.

Kubbet el-Arwah ' 175

Sebil Kai't Bey. Pulpit of Borhan ed-Din Kady. King's

Cistern. Bir El-Waraka '. ' . . . . 175

Mosque El-Aksa . . '. 176

Substructions of the Haram. Double Gate. Cradle of Christ.

Stables of Solomon. Single Gate. Triple Gate .... 179'

Wall of the Haram. Golden Gate. Throne of Solomon . 181

Bab el-Asbat." Birket Isra'il. Bab Hitta. Bab el-rAtem . 183

Walk round the Outer Wall . . .' V 184

Serai (Old and Modern). Bab el-Kattanin. Hammam esh-

Shifa (Pool of Bethesda) . . '.". . .' 184

Bab es-Silseleh. Wilson's Arch. Pool of Burak. Mehkemeh 185

Wailing Place of the Jews '. . '. . . 185

Barclay's Gate. Robinson's Arch 186

South and East Sides of the Haram 187

The Church of the Sepulchre 189

History 189

Entrance Court and Side Chapels. Clock Tower .... 192

Southern Facade of the Church of the Sepulchre .... 1(13

Interior of the Church of the Sepulchre. Stone of Anointment 194

The Holy Sepulchre. Chapel of the Angels. Tomb Chapel 105

Chapel of the Syrians 197

Chapel of the Apparition. Column of Scourging. Latin

Sacristy 198

Church of the Crusaders. Catholicon (Chapel of the Greeks).

Centre of the World I98

Prison of Christ. Chapel of St. Longinus. Chapel of the

Parting of the Raiment I99

Chapel of the Crowning with Thorns. Column of the Derision 199

Chapel of St. Helena. Chapel of the Finding of the Cross . 200 Golgotha. Chapel of the Raising of the Cross. Cleft in the

Rock 201

Chapel of the Nailing to the Cross. Chapel of St. Mary

(or of the Agony) 201

CONTENTS. XI

Route Page Refectory of the Greek9. Chapel of Adam. Monuments of

Godfrey and Baldwin 201

Easter Ceremonies 202

East Side of the Church of the Sepulchre 203

Basilica of Constantine 203

Abyssinian Monastery 203

Monastery of the Copts 203

Cistern of Helena 203

Walks within the City 204

Muristan 204

Gate of St. Stephen. Church of St. Anne. Chapel of the

Scourging 207

Via Dolorosa. Convent of the Sisters of Zion. Ecce Homo

Arch 208

House of Dives and Lazarus. Tomb of St. Veronica. Gate

of Judgment, etc 209

Street of the Christians. Great Greek Monastery. Patriarch's Pool. Coptic Khan. Bath of the Patriarch. Greek Monas- tery of St. John 210

David Street. Bazaar 211

Jewish Quarter. Synagogues 212

Latin Patriarchate. Citadel (City of David). English Church.

Armenian Monastery 212

4. Environs of Jerusalem 213

1. The Mount of Olives 213

Birket Sitti Maryam. Bath of the Virgin 213

Valley of Kidron (or of Jehoshaphat). Upper Bridge . . . . 213

Tomb of the Virgin. Cavern of the Agony 214

Garden of Gethsemane 216

Mount of Olives 217

Place where Jesus wept 217

Scene of the Lord's Praver 220

Scene of the Creed 220

Tombs of the Prophets 220

Karem es-Sayyad (Viri Galilsei) 221

Scopus .' ' 222

Gate of Herod 222

2. The Valley of the Kidron 222

Tomb of Absalom 222

Tomb of Jehoshaphat 223

Grotto of St. James 223

Pyramid of Zacharias 224

Siloah 224

Mountain of Offence 225

St. Mary's Well 225

Pool of Siloah 226

Job's Well 227

Bet Sahur el-'Atika 227

3. The Valley of Hinnom 228

Mount of Evil Counsel 228

Necropolis 228

Building of the Field of Blood (Aceldama) 230

Birket es-Sultan 231

English Protestant School 231

Coenaculum. David's Tomb 232

Armenian Monastery of Mount Zion (House of Caiaphas) . 233

Gate of Zion 234

Lepers' Hospital 234

Mamilla Pool 235

XII CONTENTS.

Route Page

4. North-Western Side of the City 235

Yafa Road 235

Castle of Goliath 235

Russian Buildings 236

Talitha Kumi. Syrian Orphanage for Boys 236

Tombs of the Kings 236

Tombs of the Judges 238

Grotto of Jeremiah 239

Cotton Grotto 239

Damascus Gate 240

5. From Jerusalem to Bethlehem 240

1. Bet Sahur and the Field of the Shepherds 250

2. From Bethlehem to 'Ain Karim 251

3. From Bethlehem to Engedi by Tekoah 252

4. From Bethlehem to Engedi by Wady et-Ta'amireh . . 252

6. From Jerusalem to the Pools of Solomon, Khareitun, the

Frank Mountain, and Bethlehem 252

1. From Artas to Bethlehem 255

2. From Khareitun to Bethlehem (and Mar Elyas) .... 256

7. From Jerusalem to Jericho, the FoTd of Jordan, the Dead

Sea, and back to Jerusalem by Mar Saba .... 257

1. Jebel Karantel 263

2. From Jericho to 'Ain Feshkha and Engedi 270

3. From Mar Saba to Bethlehem 274

8. From Jerusalem to the Monastery of the Cross, 'Ain Karim,

and 'Ain el-Habis 274

9. From Jerusalem to Hebron 277

1. From Hebron to Engedi 283

2. From Engedi to Masada 284

3. From Masada to Hebron 287

4. From Masada to Jebel lTsdum 287

5. From Hebron to Jebel Tsdum 288

6. From Jebel Vsdum to Kerak 289

10. Petra 290

1. Environs of Petra (El-Beida, El-Barid, Wady Sabra, Ma'an) 296

2. From 'Akaba to Petra .' 296

3. From Jebel Usdum to Petra. Mount Hdr 296

4. From Petra to Hebron 298

5. From Petra to Kerak 299

6. From Kerak to 'Amman by Mkaur and Hesban. Mount Nebo 302

7. From 'Amman to 'Arak el-Emir . .' 3' 6

8. From 'Arak el-Emir to Jericho 308

11. From Hebron to Bet Jibrin and Gaza 308

1. From Gaza to El-'Arish 315

12. From Gaza to Jerusalem by Ascalon 315

1. From Ascalon to Yafa by Esdud and Yebna 317

2. From Der Dubban to Dhikrin 319

3. From Bittir to Bethlehem 321

13. From Jerusalem to 'Anata, Mikhmash, Der Diwan, and

Betin 321

1. From Mikhmash through the Wady Fara to 'Anata . . 323

2. From Jericho to Der Diwan 323

14. From Jerusalem to Nabulus 324

CONTENTS. XIII

Route Page

1. From El-Bireh to cAin el-Haramiyeh by Betin and <Ain Yebriid ' 326

2. Seilun 327

3. From Lydda to Nabulus 335

4. From Nabulus to Es-Salt and Jerash 336

5. From Nabulus to Beisan and Tiberias 337

6. From Beisan to Zer'in 338

7. From Jericho to Beisan 339

15. From Nabulus to Jenin and Nazareth 340

1. From Jerba' to Tell Dothan 342

2. From Zerrin to Fiileh 345

3. From Sulem to Nain and Endur 346

16. From Jenin to Haifa and Acre. Mount Carmel .... 346

1. From Tell el-Kasis to the Mihraka and the Monastery of Carmel ..." 347

2. From Yafa to Haifa 350

17. From Haifa (or Acre) to Nazareth 356

1. From Acre to Nazareth by Tell Jefat 358

18. Nazareth 358

19. From Nazareth to Tiberias 364

a. By Mount Tabor 364

b. By Kefr Kenna 366

1. Excursions to the Eastern Bank of the L ke of Tiberias 370

20. From Tiberias to Tell Hum and Safed 371

1. From Khan Jubb Yusef to Banias direct 375

2. From Safed to Meiron and Kefr Bir'im 377

3. From Safed to Tyre by Tibnin 378

4. From Tibnin to Kal'at esh-Shekif (and Sidon) .... 378

5. From Safed to Tyre by Yathir ' 379

21. From Safed to Damascus 380

a. By Banias 380

1. Tell Khureibeh (Hazor) 380

2. Tell el-Kadi (Dan) 382

3. Birket er-Ram 385

4. From Betima to Damascus by DarSya 386

b. By Kunetera 387

22. From Jericho to Es-Salt and Jerash 388

1. From 'Arak el-Emir to Es-Salt 390

2. From 'Amman to Es-Salt 390

3. From Jerash to Mzerib 397

4. From Jerash to Mkes 398

5. From Mkes to the Valley of Jordan. The Hot Springs

of Gadara' (Amattia) 399

23. The Hauran 399

From Mkes to Mzerib 403

From Mzerib to Damascus 404

1. Monastery of Job 405

2. From Jisr el-Mejami'a to Damascus by Nawa .... 406 From Mzerib to Bosra 407

3. The Eastern Hauran. From Bosra to Shakka by Salkhad, Busan, Tema, and Duma ......'. 411

From Bosra to Damascus 412

XIV CONTENTS.

Route Pa8e

4. From Bosra to Suweda by Hebran. The Kleb .... 413

5. Temple of Si;h ....'.....: 4}°

6. From Kanawat to Shohba by Suleim 41°

7. From Shohba to Brak by Shakka 420

8. From Brak to Damascus by Musmiyeh *"

24. From Acre to Beirut by Saida 422

1. From Acre to Tyre by Kal'at Karn *30

25. Beirut ■'..'. 436

1. Environs of Beirut. Pineta, Ras Beirut, Der el-Kal'a . 442

26. From Beirut to Damascus 444

27. From Sidon to Hasbeya and Rasheya (Damascus). Mount

Hermon . .' 449

1. From Jisr el-Khardeli to Banias 450

2. From Banias to Hasbeya 451

3. From Bet Laya to 'Ain Hersha 452

4. From Jisr el-Khardeli to Rasheya 452

5. From Rasheya to Damascus : 455

(1) Direct, "by the Damascus Road 455

(2) By Katana 456

28. From Kal'at esh-Shekif to Beirut by Jezzin and Der el-

Kamar ' 456

1. From Jezzin to Bteddin by Der el-Mishmushi .... 458

29. Damascus 460

a. Walk through the Bazaar 468

b. Walk through the Meidan and round the City Walls 476

c. The Great Mosque 482

d. Walks around the City : 486

To Jobar 486

To Salahiyeh, Jebel Kasiiin, etc 487

1. Excursion to the Meadow Lakes 488

30. From Damascus to Beirut via, Ba'albek 489

1. From Damascus to Zebedani (Ba'albek) by Helbun . . 492

2. Hosn Niha. Zahleh. Jebel Sannin . . 501

31. From Ba'albek to Beirut by Tripoli. Cedars of Lebanon 502

1. From the Cedars to Ehden by Bsherreh and Kannobin . 506

2. From Bsherreh to Beirut by Afka ....'.... 507

3. From Ghazir to the Nahr el-Kel'b by 'Ain Warka . . . 515

32. From Damascus to Palmyra 517

i. From Palmyra to Ba'albek by Horns and Riblah ... 534

2. From Karyaten to Tripoli by Riblah 535

3. From Karyaten to Damascus by Nebk and Sednaya . . 536

33. From Tripoli to Ladikiyeh by the Coast 538

1. From Ladikiyeh to Aleppo 546

2. From Ladikiyeh to Antioch (direct) 546

3. From Urdeh across the Jebel Akra' to Suweidiyeh . . 547

34. From Beirut to Iskanderun 551

1. From Iskanderun to Tarsus and Mersina 552

35. From Iskanderun to Aleppo 553

CONTENTS. XV

Route Page

36. Inland Route from Damascus to Aleppo 555

1. From Hama to Kal'at el-Mudik 55*

2. From Kal'at el-Mudik to El-Bara and Sermin .... 560

3. Direct 'Route from El-Bara to Riha 56$

4. From Riha to Dana through the Jebel el-A'la .... 563

37. Aleppo . . ' 564

1. From Aleppo to Kinnesrin 569

2. From Aleppo to Kal'at Sim'an 570

3. From Kal'at Sim'an to Turmanin 573

38. From Aleppo to Iskanderun by Antioch 574

1. From Antioch to Bet el-Ma (Daphne) 580

Index 582

LIST OF MAPS.

1. Map showing Routes to the Levant, opposite the Title-Page.

2. Map showing Routes thkough Stp.ia (and Extent of Special Maps),

after the Index.

3. Map op the Environs of Yafa (Route 1), between pp. 130, 131.

4. Map of Judaea (Routes 2, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14), between pp. 132, 133.

5. Map of Immediate Environs of Jerusalem (Routes 4, 7, 8), between

pp. 212, 213.

6. Map of District around Jerusalem (Routes 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), between

pp. 240, 241.

7. Map of Arabia Pete^a (Route 10), between pp. 296, 297.

8. Map of the Country to the East of Jordan (Perjea) (Routes 10,

22), between pp. 302, 303.

9. Map of Samaria (Routes 14, 15, 16, 22), between pp. 324, 325.

10. Map of the Environs of Mount Cabmel (Route 16), between

pp. 350, 351.

11. Map of Galilee (Routes 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24), between pp. 356, 357.

12. Map of the Hauran (Route 23), between pp. 400, 401.

13. Map of the Environs of Tyre (Route 24), between pp. 428, 429.

14. Map of the Environs of Sidon (Route 24), between pp. 434, 435.

15. Map of the Environs of Beirut (Route 25), between pp. 442, 443.

16. Map of Southern Lebanon (Routes 24, 26, 27, 28, 30), between

pp. 446, 447.

17. Map of the Environs of Damascus (Route 29), between pp. 486,

487.

18. Map of Northern Lebanon (Routes 30, 31, 32), between pp. 500, 501.

PLANS.

1. Yafa, p. 129.

2. Jerusalem, p. 144.

3. Ancient Jerusalem, p. 155.

4. Haram esh-Sherif, p. 168.

5. Kubbet es-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock), p. 170.

6. Mosque el-Aksa, p. 177.

7. Church of the Sepulchre, p. 192.

8. Muristan, p. 205.

9. Tomb of the Virgin, p. 215.

10. Chapel of the Mount of Olives (Ascension Chapel), p. 218.

11. Tombs of the Prophets, p. 221.

XVI PLANS.

12. Tomb of Absalom and Jehoshaphat, p. 223.

13. Grotto of St. James, p. 223.

14. Necropolis in the Valley of Hinnom, p. 229.

15. Tombs of the Kings, p. 237.

16. Tombs of the Judges, p. 238.

17. Church of the Virgin at Bethlehem, p. 246.

18. Grotto of the Nativity at Bethlehem, p. 248.

19. Hebron (El-Khal!l), p. 280.

20. Masada (Es-Sebbeh), p. 285.

21. Petra (WiDi Musa), p. 290.

22. 'Amman (Philadelphia), p. 305.

23. 'Arak el-Emir, p. 308.

24. Nabulus (Shechem), p. 329.

25. Haifa and Mount Carmel, p. 348.

26. Environs of Acre, p. 354.

27. Nazareth (En-NAsira), p. 360.

28. Church of the Annunciation at Nazareth, p. 361.

29. Jerash (Kerasa), p. 392.

30. Bosra (Bostra), p. 408.

31. Kanawat (Kanatha), p. 416.

32. Saida (Sidon), p. 432.

33. Beirut, p. 436.

34. Damascus, p. 460.

35. Acropolis of Ba'albek, p. 495. 36: Cedars of Lebanon, p. 503.

37. Tripoli (Tarabulus) and El-Mina, p. 510.

38. Palmyra, p. 524.

39. E. Colonnade of the Great Row of Columns (Palmyra), p. 527.

40. Seleucia, p. 549.

41. Aleppo (Haleb), p. 564.

42. Kal'at Si'm'an, p. 571.

43. Antakiteh (Antioch), p. 578.

VIEWS.

Panorama of Jerusalem from the Mt. of Olives, between pp. 218, 219.

1. Kubbet es-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock), p. 166.

2. Mosque el-Aksa, p. 166.

3. Wailing Place of the Jews, p. 186.

4. Via Dolorosa, p. 186.

5. Southern Facade of the Church of the Sepulchre, p. 194.

6. Interior of the Church of the Sepulchre, p. 194.

7. Damascus, p. 464.

8. Ba'albek, p. 464.

9. Palmyra (Triple Porch), p. 52S. 10. — (Street of Columns), p. 528.

ASTERISKS are used as marks of commendation.

PALESTINE.

I. Preliminary Information.

(1). Plan. Season. Companions. Routes.

Plan. In most European countries travellers are enabled by the modern facilities for locomotion, and with the aid of time-tables to mete out their time to the best possible advantage, and to m- portion each day and even hour with tolerable precision; but the traveller in the still semi-barbarous East must We content with framing a more general plan for his tour, and must leave the minuter details to be filled in according to circumstances as he proceeds on his way. In Syria the horse affords the only mode of conveyance, except for long journeys through the desert, when the camel is chiefly used, but the traveller will rarely have occasion to mount this uncomfortable animal. The country cannot boast of a single carnage-road, except those from Yafa to Jerusalem and from Berrut to Damascus, far less of a railway; and the success of a tour is therefore mainly dependent on the health and energy of the traveller, on the weather, and on a host of incidental circumstances which do not occur in Europe. For this very reason it is all the more desirable that the traveller should make careful preliminary enquiries regarding the places he ought to see, and how they are to be reached; and to assist him in this respect is one of the pri- mary objects of the present Handbook. P

Season. Spring and autumn are the best seasons for visiting byna ihe greatest influx of travellers, most of whom come from Hgypt, takes place in spring. At that season Jerusalem is crowded with tourists and pilgrims. Then, too, the scenery is in perfection, the vegetation fresh and vigorous, while in autumn the landscape is l«W T °f hfe- ,Autumn> °» the other hand, affords more settled weather especially from the middle of October to the end otNovember, which would be an admirable season for a tour but for the '^creasing shortness of the days. Mountain ascents, such as that of the Great Hermon(R. 27), aremosteasily accomplished in autumn as the summits are then free from snow. In some respects the pleasantest, and at the same time least expensive, time for a tour

Palestine.

1

<s PLAN OF TOUR.

in Syria is perhaps from the middle of September to the middle or even end of November . when the country is far less overrun with travellers than in spring. If this time be chosen the tour should be begun from the North, where the mountains afford a refuge from occasional hot days, while the traveller in spring should reserve Lebanon for the end of his journeyings. A visit to Southern Palestine should not be begun before the middle or end of March, as rainy days in that month are still frequent, and travelling hardly becomes enjoyable till April. Among the mountainous districts excursions are practicable up to the end of June. The proper seasons for a tour in Syria are therefore fromthe beginning of April to the middle of June, and from the middle of September to the middle of November. All the other months are more or less unfavour- able. Lastly, it must be borne in mind that the choice of autumn in- volves returning to Europe at a cold and dismal season of the year ; and, to avoid this unpleasant termination to our tour, we there- fore hnally decide in favour of spring, and accordingly begin our journey with a visit to Yafa and Jerusalem (see below).

Companions. Travelling alone in the Bast, at least for any length of time, is wearisome, and from one-third to one-half more expensive than for members of a party. Many of the items of expenditure which must be incurred are precisely the same for a solitary traveller as for a party ; and, apart from pecuniary con- siderations , the advantages of mutual support and companionship are invaluable in a country with whose language and customs we are as yet unfamiliar, and with whose inhabitants any social intercourse is difficult or impossible. The traveller who is at home in every country in Europe , who at every iiin in town or village finds op- portunity for adding to his stock of information or for engaging in friendly chat, will speedily be wearied in the East, however familiar he may be with the language , by the stereotyped questioiis and artificial phraseology of the people with whom he comes in contact. Moreover if he be unaccustomed to fatiguing and often uninterest- ing rides , he will stand doubly in need of the refreshment and variety afforded by intercourse with friends ; and many an untoward incident, which would otherwise have preyed on the mind and damped the spirits, will then lose much of its sting and even become provocative of merriment. Those who start for their tour without companions will in spring have no difficulty in meeting with other travellers in the same position, and parties may thus easily be formed ; but caution in the selection of companions is very necessary in a country where arrangements once concluded are not easily altered . and where mutual confidence, congeniality, and forbearance are qualities of the utmost importance. One of the chief points to be settled beforehand is when and where days of rest are to be observed. In conversation , religious topics had better, as a rule, be avoided, as expressions of opinion on these

PLAN OF TOUR. 3

subjects too often lead to serious misunderstandings and even quarrels.

Routes. Travellers who are pressed for time may obtain a glimpse of the most interesting points in the South and North of Palestine in four weeks, which may be apportioned as follows : —

Tour of a Month.

On arriving at Yafa hire horses immediately ; as the Days steamers generally arrive in the morning, there will probably be time to ride to Ramleh the same evening . 1

Start early next morning in order to reach Jerusa- lem as early as possible 1

1st Day at Jerusalem : leave card at the Consul's, ami request his aid for visiting the Haram; visit Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and towards evening the Mt. of Olives 1

2nd Day at Jerusalem : Via Dolorosa, Tomb of the Virgin, Gethsemane, Valley of Jehoshaphat , Tomb of Absalom , Siloah . Valley of Hinnom , Mt. Zion , City of David 1

3rd Day at Jerusalem : Haram esh-Sherif (but not on a Friday), walk round it, both inside and out; Bazaars ; Pool of Hezekiah 1

4th Day at Jerusalem : Mt. Scopus, Tombs of the Kings , Tombs of the Judges. — Muristan .... 1

Excursion to the Dead Sea, for which order horses in good time, and procure letter of introduction to the Monastery of Mar Saba. From Jerusalem to Jericho. Walk in the evening towards the Karantel , to the Sultan's Well ' 1

From Jericho to the Ford of Jordan, to the N. end of the Dead Sea, and to Mar Saba (a long day)- .... 1

Visit the monastery. From Mar Saba to Bethlehem or Jerusalem 1

The traveller will now have 3 — 4 days to spend at Jerusalem ; two of these may be devoted to some of the numerous objects of interest mentioned in our description of the Holy City (walk round the walls , Church of St. Anne, Model of the Holy Sepulchre, Leper Hospital, Monastery of the Cross, Russian Buildings etc.) . . 2

Another day may be spent in visiting Solomon's Pools, Neby Samwil, or rAin Karim t

Return to Yafa (via, Lydda) 2

14 Days.

Steamboat to Beirut 1

Diligence to Damascus 1

1st Day at Damascus : Mosque, Bazaars .... 1

1*

4 PLAN OF TOUR.

2nd : Walk to the Meidan and round the outside of Days

the city 1

3rd: Visit several of the finest houses, Christian

quarter, gardens 1

4th : Excursion to Salahiyeh and Dnmar . . . . L

From Damascus to Zehedani 1

From Zehedani to Ba'alhek 1

At Ba'alhek 1^ days; on the second day start about

noon for Mu'allaka 2

From Mu'allaka to Beirut 1

At Beirut 3 days, one of which should be spent in

visiting the Nalir el-Kelb 3

14 Days. Steamboat to Smyrna, etc., and thence homewards. Or the last 14 days may be spent thus : —

At Beirut 1

To Damascus 1, at Damascus 3, to Ba'albek 2 . . 6

Leave Ba'alhek on second day for Der el-Ahmar . 2

By the Cedars to Ehden 2

From Ehden to Tripoli 1

From Tripoli to Beirut (or better to Nahr el-Kelb,

and in -j day more to Beirut) 2

14 Days. As the steamer (in which berths should be secured beforehand)

generally leaves in the evening, one day more at Beirut will thus be available.

Tour of Six Wkkks. (A Ride through Palestine.)

From Yafa to Jerusalem 2, Jerusalem 6, Dead Sea Days

3 (comp. p. 3) 11

To Hebron and back 2

From Jerusalem to Nabulus (1^ days, spending

night at Bireh) 2

From Nabulus to Jenin by Sebastiyeh 1

From Jenin ( by Zer'in) to Tell Kasis (excursion to

the MihTaka) 1

Haifa, Carmel 1

From Haifa to Acre (i day) 1

From Acre to Nazareth 1

From Nazareth to Tiberias (by Mt. Tabor) ... 1

From Tiberias to Safed by Tell Hum 1

From Safed to Banias by Kedes (fatiguing ; better sleep at Ilunin, and proceed more leisurely the next day

to Banias by Tell el-Kadi) 2

From Banias (by Kal'at es-Subebeh) to Kefr Hawar;

from Kefr Hawar to Damascus 0

PLAN OF TOUR.

Damascus 4

To Tripoli and Beirut by Ba'albek 9

Beirut 3

42 Days. Supplementary Routes

(for extension or modification of the above).

From Jerusalem to Engedi ('Ain Jidy) .... 2 From Engedi via Masada (Sebbeh) to the S. end of

the Dead Sea, to Jebel Usdum and Hebron .... 3

From Hebron to Bet Jibrin 1

From Bet Jibrin to Gaza 1

Gaza and Ascalon 1

From Ascalon via Tell es-Safiyeh and Bet Nettif to

Jerusalem 2

10 Days.

From Jerusalem to Jenin 3

From Jenin to Nazareth 1

From Nazareth to Haifa 1

From Haifa to Acre 1

From Acre to Sur (Tyre ; a long ride) 1

From Sur to Saida (Sidon) 1

From Saida to Beirut 1

9 Days.

From Damascus to Rasheya 14, 2

Ascent of Hermon 1

From Hasbeya by Burgbuz to Kal'at esh-Shekif . . 1 (From Kal'at esh-Shekif to Sidon 1)

From Kal'at esh-Shekif to Jezzin 1

From Jezzin to Der el-Kamar , . 1

From Der el-Kamar to Beirut 1

7 Days.

From Damascus to Palmyra 4

Palmyra 2

From Palmyra to Horns 3

From Horns to Ba'albek by Riblah 2{

11 Days.

From Jerusalem to 'Arak el-Emir by Jericho ... 2

To 'Amman 1

From 'Amman to es-Salt 1

From es-Salt to Jerash 1

Jerash \.\

To Mkes ■ . . 1|

From Mkes to Tiberias 1

9 Days.

6 TRAVELLING EXPENSES.

From Jerash to Bosra 2

Bosra, and thence to Hebran 1

From Hebran to Kanawat 1

Shohba and Shakka 1

To Brak . . '.' 1

To Damascus 1

7 Days.

(2'). Travelling Expenses. Letters of Credit. Money. Weights and Measures.

ExrENSEs. The cost of travelling in the East is considerably greater than in Europe, where the style of travelling may be varied to almost any extent so as to suit the tastes , the pursuits , and the finances of each traveller, while Europeans in the East will find so many unwonted requirements absolutely essential to their comfort that the most economically arranged tour cannot be otherwise than expensive. The average daily charge at the hotels (comp. p. 28) is 15 fr., without wine; table wine 3 — 4 fr. per bottle ('Jerusalem wine' is sometimes to be had at 1 — 2 fr.), English beer 2 — 2^ fr., fees -J — 1 fr. ; that is, about 20 fr. a day in all, unless the travel- ler avails himself of the accommodation afforded by the monasteries at Yafa and Jerusalem for one-half or a third of that sum (comp. p. 29). To this must be added the daily hire of horses and of guides , or -dragomans' as even the humblest style themselves, without whose aid the traveller, especially if ignorant of the language , would often be at a loss to find his way, even in the streets of Jerusalem or Damascus. When to these items is added the bakhshish (p. 27) which has to be bestowed at frequent inter- vals , the traveller must allow altogether about 30 fr. a day for the routes from Yafa to Jerusalem, and from Yafa to Beirut and Damascus. (Steamboat of course extra; see p. 10.)

The charges made by the dragoman when the party travels with tents (seep. 15) depend of course on the requirements and number of the persons composing it. During the height of the travelling season, about Easter, the daily expenditure of a solitary traveller with dra- goman, tents, and all necessaries amounts to at least 60 fr. a day, that of two to about 100 fr., that of three to 120 fr., and that of four to 130 fr., after which each additional member of the party would cost about 25 fr. a day. These charges ought to include an ample supply of food, but not wine. The charge for horse-hire has risen very considerably of late years, being of course highest when travel- lers are most numerous. Less in proportion is generally charged for the shorter tours , such as that of three days from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea and back (R. 7), than for the longer, as in the latter case the dragoman generally has a long return journey with servants and horses to take into account. A much higher charge is made for excursions to the country east of Jordan and to Petra, where the

MONEY. 7

dragoman has to provide an escort of soldiers or Beduins varying in number according to the political circumstances of the day. Prices are occasionally reckoned in shillings, but the traveller will And it advantageous to adhere to the more usual franc (1 s. = 1 fr. 25 c).

Letters of Credit. Large sums of money can only be carried safely in the form of circular notes. These convenient 'letters of credit' are issued by the London and some of the provincial banks at a moderate charge.

The most important of the Oriental banks is the Banque Im- periale Ottomane, -which is in correspondence with most of the principal banks in Europe, has offices at Jerusalem and Beirut, and agencies in all the larger towns of Syria. These offices will be mentioned in our description of the places where they are to be found. Money-changers , generally Jews , are to be found at every bazaar, but the traveller should be very cautious in dealing with them.

Money. Such a thing as paper currency is unknown in the East, and great confusion prevails on account of the variety of coins in circulation. Travellers from Egypt should get all their Egyptian money changed into French or English , as the Egyptian does not pass in Syria. The coins most usually met with are Turkish, French, English, Austrian, and Russian.

There are two rates of exchange : (1) at the government offices (sagk) , and (2) in trade (shuruk) ; at the Austrian post-office there are also different rates in certain cases. The traveller should always enquire of a banker as to the current rate of exchange, and avoid getting change at bazaars, at hotels, or from his dragoman. For a journey into the interior an abundant supply of the smallest coins should be taken, as the villagers frequently decline to give change ; and these coins should be the newest and most perfect procurable, as the peasants and Beduins are very apt to object to coins which are at all defaced by use. Gold coins , such [as sovereigns and du- cats, which do not give forth a clear metallic ring are also pretty sure to be rejected, even when the imperfection arises from a trifl- ing flaw or crack, and not from any impurity in the metal. The money of Syria consists of piastres (Arabic Kirsh or 'irsh, plur. KurushJ , at 40 paras each (Arabic fadda, or masrtyeh). There are copper coins of 5, 10, and 20 paras; and imitation silver coins of 20 paras (Arabic kameri , in the towns 'ameri), and also of 1, 2^, and 5 piastres. These last, which are a little larger than a half- crown, are called beshlik (from the Turkish besh = 5), and there are pieces of 6 piastres, called altlik (from the Turkish alty = 6). Besides these, there are pieces of \, 1, 2, 5, and 10 piastres in silver, the 5-piastre piece being about the size of a franc. The mej'idi, or Turkish dollar, named after Abdul-Mejid, is worth 20 piastres at the government rate of exchange. The following table shows the approximate values of the different coins in piastres and paras, the piastre being worth about 2d. English.

8

MONEY.

Beirut,

Turkish

Austrian

Jerusalem.

Yafa.

Govt.

Post.

English sovereign

120

126.10(|)

110

118

(lira inglizlyeh)

Turkish lira

109

115

100

108

(lira osmanliyeli)

Russian imperial

97

102

90

96

(lira moskowtyeh)

Napoleon (20 fr.)

95

100

86(|)

94

(lira fransawlyeh)

Ducat

56

58f— 59i

52

55

Spanish coloimato

25

26—261

25

(or dollar)

Mejidi

21|-21|

22.30(3)

20

21

Ruble

18.20(1)

19.35(X)

17.20(1)

IS

German dollar

1?.35(|)

18.10(1)

18

Austrian florin

12

12.20(1)

11

12

^-Mejidi

10.30(f)

11.15(f)

10

101

Altlik

6.10(|)

6.20(1)

6

6

Shilling

5.10(|)

H

Beshlik

5J— 6

5.20(1)

5

5

i-Mejidi

5.15(f)

5.25(f)

5

5

Franc

43—5

20-Kopeks

3^

3.15(3)

15-Kopeks

2.10(f)

2.20(1)

10-Kopeks

1.20 ft)

1.25(1)

Uesidus these coins, Marin Theresa dollars at 25 piastres each, and rive-franc pieces of the same value, are occasionally met with at Beirut. The following words are also used colloquially to ex- press various other sums : fdnas , 20 paras ; zalata . 30 paras ; baraghut, 1 piastre 5 paras ; saghtut (pi. saghat it), 5 paras (-gth piastre ). etc.

The above rate of exchange is liable to constant fluctuation, and deviations from it frequently occur at places in the interior and in Northern Syria. We shall note these deviations when describing these places , but for ordinary use the above list will generally be found approximately correct.

As it is a favourite fashion with women in the East to wear necklaces formed of gold or silver coins strung together, numerous pieces of money perforated with holes are in common circulation. Such coins, especially if the holes are large, should be rejected by the traveller , as he would often have difficulty in passing them. Money should always be carefully kept under lock and key , and shown as little as possible, in order that the cupidity of at-

PASSPORTS. 9

tendauts may not be excited. As a rule, it is advisable to keep all accounts, ask prices, etc., in piastres, a system which the traveller will generally And much more advantageous than reckoning in francs or shillings.

Weights and Measures. The standard of weight in Syria is the Okka (about 2J lbs.), which contains 400 drams (drachms), or 5^- okiyeh; 1 okiyeh contains 75 drams ( about 7 oz.) ; 1 roil contains 1\ okkas, or 12 okiyeh, or 900 drams ; 44 okkas are 1 kantar (about 1 cwt.). "Wine and other liquids are generally sold by weight.

The Dra% or ell, the unit of linear measurement, is about 26| inches, that of Aleppo 30f inches.

(3). Passports and Custom House.

Pass:ports. On arrival at a Syrian port the travellers passport is sometimes asked for. but an ordinary visiting-card will answer the purpose equally well. It is advisable, however, to be provided with a passport, as it may occasionally be of use ; but if it is given up to the officials on landing , they will send it to the consul , and much needless delay and trouble will thus be occasioned. Should any difficulty arise, a trifling 'bakhshish' affords an almost certain solution.

Custom House. The traveller's luggage is generally subjected to examination at the douane. Personal effects are free, but other articles are liable to duty. Cigars are often eagerly sought for and taxed at apparently quite an arbitrary rate (comp. p. 33). Diffi- culties are also frequently made about firearms, and particularly about cartridges or other ammunition. Books are sometimes examined, and Korans and religious works of a controversial character are liable to seizure. In all these cases a bakhshish of a few francs will generally ensure the traveller against molestation, but it should of course not be offered too openly, or in presence of the superior officials. The formalities of the custom-house are strictest at Beirut.

All goods exported are liable to a duty of 1 per cent on their value, and the exportation of antiquities is entirely prohibited. The traveller is therefore liable to another examination on leaving the country , but he will generally have no difficulty in securing exemption in the way above indicated. If luggage has to be sent across a frontier, the keys must be sent with it in order that it may undergo the custom-house examination ; but the traveller should never part from his luggage unless absolutely compelled, and should always endeavour to be present at such examinations. Luggage belonging to all the foreign consulates is entirely exempt from duty.

(4). Consulates.

Consuls in the East enjoy the same privilege of exterritoriality as ambassadors in Europe. Some of these are consuls by profession, or consuls-general ('consules missi'), others merely commercial, or

10 STEAMBOATS.

vice-consuls. The English and American consuls of the former class (at Jerusalem and Beirut only) exercise jurisdiction in all <ivil matters of dispute between their countrymen, and in complaints against their countrymen by other foreigners. The vice-consuls or consular agents have no judicial functions. Disputes between Turkish subjects and foreigners are decided by the Turkish courts, with the aid of the dragoman of the foreigner's consulate. In all emergencies the traveller should, if possible, apply to his consul, with whose aid the annoyance of a lawsuit in a native court may generally be avoided. Politeness, as well as self-interest, will generally prompt new-comers to call on their national representa- tives ; and a special introduction to them is of course very desirable. The 'kawasses', or consular attendants , are often very useful to travellers, and though not entitled to ask payment for their services, generally expect a gratuity.

(5). Steamboats.

Most travellers reach and quit Syria by sea. The present ser- vices of the different steamboat companies are enumerated below ; but, as alterations often take place, enquiry on the subject should always be made at the local offices , or on board of the vessels themselves. Before leaving home the traveller should write to the ■Administration des Services des Messageries Maritim.es, 16 Rue Cannebiere , Marseilles'' for a ' Livret des Lignes delaMediterran.ee et de la Mer Noire'' (or to 19 Quai de Bacalan, Bordeaux ; or 20 Rue Notre Dame des Victoires, Paris; or 97 Cannon St., E. C, London ; or G. H. Fletcher & Co., Liverpool), and also to the 'Ad- ministration of the Austrian Lloyd's Steamboat Company, Trieste' for 'Information for Passengers by the Austrian Lloyd's Steamboats'. The latter time-tables are published in English. "With the aid of these two sets of time-tables the general outline of the tour may be sketched before starting. The Austrian and Russian steamers are less punctual and regular than the French.

Messagekies Maritimks. The steamers of this company are the cleanest and most comfortable of all those which ply regularly from Western Europe to Syria. The services are punctual, the cabins well fitted up, the food (including wine) generally good, and the officials civil. The traveller should, however, endeavour to avoid encountering the crowds of Christian pilgrims who converge towards Jerusalem before Easter from every part of the Mediter- ranean, and above all the Muslim pilgrims to Mecca in the month of Ramadan, a festival which occurs at a different time every year, as on these occasions considerable confusion and discomfort are inevitable. The fares in the first and second cabins include pro- visions and wine, the second being not greatly inferior to the first in point of accommodation and food. Steerage, or third-class pas- sengers pay extra for food.

STEAMBOATS.

11

Austrian Lloyd. The vessels of this company , which are generally manned by Italians and Dalmatians, though inferior to those of the Messageries , and more patronised by German than by English travellers, are on the whole well managed. Food is included in the fare, but wine is charged extra. The beer is generally good. Travellers of the upper classes seldom travel in the second cabin in these vessels, as they frequently do in the vessels of the Messageries.

Russian Steamboat Company. Russian steamers ply to several of the Syrian ports from Constantinople, but are not to be depended on for cleanliness or punctuality. Another drawback is , that few or none of the languages of Western Europe aTe spoken by the of- ficers or crew. Some of these vessels, however, are favourably spoken of by travellers.

English Steamers. There is no regular passenger service between England and Syria , but the fine steameTS of the Penin- sular and Oriental Co. ply weekly from Southampton and from Brindisi to Alexandria. Italian and a few English steamers also ply from Genoa, Naples, Brindisi, Venice, and Trieste to Alexandria, whence the Syrian coast is reached by one of the other companies.

On board most of these vessels tea or cafe noir is served at an early hour in the morning; about 10 there is a dejeiiner a la four- chette, and at 5 dinner, followed by tea or coffee. The steward expects a fee of \ — 1 fr. per day from each passenger.

Services op the Messageries. The following are the Lignes Circulates de VEgypte et de la Syrie, on each of which a steamer of this company plies fortnightly : —

Stations.

larseilles

'alermo

iyra

Imyrna

thodes

tersina

ilexandrette

jadikiyeh

Tripoli

teirut

Tafa

'ort Said

Alexandria

Japles

larseilles

Arrival.

Sund., noon. Wed., 8 a. m. Thurs. ,6. a. m. Sat., 4 p. m. Mon., 6 a. m. Tues., 1 a. m. Wed., 4 a. m. Wed., 4 p. m. Thurs., 3a. m. Frid., o a. m. Sat., 7 a. m. Sund., 6 a. m. Sat. 2 p. m. Mon., 4 p. m.

Departure.

Frid., noon. Sund., 6 p. in. Wed., 2 p. m. Frid., 3 p. m. Sat., 7 p. m. Mon. 6 p. m. Tues., 8. p. m. Wed., 9 a. in. Wed., 10 p. m. Thurs., 6 p.m. Frid., 6 p. m. Sat., 6 p. m. Tues., 9 am. Sat., 7 p. m.

Stations.

Marseilles

Naples

Alexandria

Port Said

Yafa

Beirut

Tripoli

Ladikiyeh

Alexandrette

Mersina

Rhodes

Smyrna

Syra

Palermo

Marseilles

Arrival.

Sat., 9 a. m. Wed., 5 p. m. Sund., 8 a. m. Mon., 6 a. m. Tues., 6 a. m. Wed., 3 a. m. Thurs., 1a.m. Thurs., 9p.m. Sat., 5 a. m. Tues., noon. Wed., noon. Sat., 8 a. m. Tues., 6 a. m. Thurs., noon.

Departure.

Thurs., noon. Sat., noon. Sat., 4 p. m. Sund., 5 p. m. Mon., 6 p. m. Tues., 10 p.m. Wed., 6 p. m. Thurs., 1 p.m. Frid., 10 p.m. Sund., 7 p. m. Tues., 10 p. m. Frid., 4 p. m. Sat. 4 p. m. Tues., noon.

Each passenger is allowed 1 cwt. of luggage in the first cabin, 130 lbs. in the second, and 65 lbs. in the third. Overweight must be booked and paid for according to tariff.

12

STEAMBOATS.

FARES

to

V

!

c

1Z

rt

Marseilles

(in francs)

'-|

"3

•A

a

. Via

4

d

■^

rt

from

—

'£

3-

Alexandria. b. Via

s

OJ

5

t-

ri

<—

<

<

X

'S

,S'

ntn'na.

r^

Y-i

£

^

3 •si

x'

£

Alexandrette.

1.

176

56

17

a. 602

1>.

564

14

490

418

133

114

184

231

42

100

2.

133

43

13

379

425

11

345

314

100

85

138

173

31

76

Alexandria.

1.

182

—

110

155

375

752

207

275

601

45

306

377

433

135

78

2.

133

—

82

117

225

518

157

175

452

34

231

284

327

101

59

Beirut.

1.

62

no

—

36

530

632

87

430

491

70

187

257

313

15

34

2

48

82

—

27

345

478

66

295

370

53

141

194

236

11

25

Ladikiyeh.

T.

23

14!)

30

—

575

6i;o

48

465

451

115

147

218

274

14

73

2.

18

112

20

371

446

36

320

340

88

111

164

207

11

55

Marseilles.

1.

602

375

530

575

—

627

125

141

455

726

857

313

540

490

0

379

225

345

371

—

_

387

100

108

285

461

583

236

361

316

Mersina.

l'.

14

201

81

42

627

539

—

—

400

157

95

166

222

66

125

■)

11

152

61

31

387

406

—

—

301

119

72

124

167

50

95

Naples.

i.

490

275

430

465

125

—

—

_

355

445

390

2

345

175

295

320

100

—

235

305

265

Palermo.

1.

418

601

485

445

141

394

—

—

561

30S

212

166

470

529

2.

314

452

365

335

10S

296

—

—

423

224

158 127

354

399

Port Said.

l!

133

45

70

115

455

702

157

355

5'J1

—

257

329 [389

91

38

2.

100

34

53

88

2S9

531

119

235

423

—

194

249 294

69

29

Khodes.

i.

120

306

187

147

726

446

95

_

314

257

71

127

172

230

2.

90

231

141

111

461

337

72

229

194

53

96

130

174

Smyrna.

1.

186

373

253

214

857

162

—

218

329

67

40

238

297

o_

140

281

191

161

583

121

—

163

249

50

30

180

224

Syra.

Y.

247

433

313

274

3.

3

222

—

172

389

127

40

298

357

'>

L8G

327

236

207

236

167

129

294

96

30

225

270

Tripoli.

T.

42

135

15

14 540

| 615

66

445

470

91

166

236

292

—

59

2.

31

101

LI

11361

465

50

305

354

69

125

178:220

45

Yafa.

i!

100

76

28

73 490

674

125

390

529

3S

224

295 ! 451

53

2.

76

57

20

55| 360

509

95

265

399

29 169

222! 265

40

—

Tickets for the complete circuit may In- purchased at the office at Marseilles. 16 Rue Cannobiere, four hours or more before the departure of the steamer. These tickets are available for four months. Return-tickets, also available for four months, are issued at a reduction of 10 per cent, but these tickets are not available for the vessels of the Kgyptian line which ply to India. A party of three or more persons in the first ot second cabin are entitled to a discount of 10 per cent on single tickets, and 15 per cent on return- tickets ; but this reduction is not extended to that part of the fare which is charged for food.

Services or the Austrian Li,oyi>.

Weekly Service between Trieste and Alexandria

Dep. from Trieste Frid., midnt. | Dep. from Alexandria on

! arrival of Indian post Tnp«

Dep. from Corfu . Mon., 5 a. m. j Dep. from Corfu . V A

Arr. at Alexandria Thurs..5a. m. Arr. at Trieste ' uT ,'

' ' ouna.

STEAMBOATS.

13

From Alexandria to Beirut, Smyrna, and Constantinople. Fortnightly Service.

Frid., 11 a. m. Dep.fr.C'onstantinople Thurs. ,4p.m.

Sat., 5 p. m. Dep. from Gallipoli Frid., 5 a. m.

San., 3 p. rat. Dep. fr. Dardanelles Frid., 9 a. m.

Mon., 1 a. m. Dep. from Tenedos . Frid., 1 p. m.

Mon., 9 a. m. Dep. from Mytilini . Frid., 8 p. m.

Mon., 7 p. m. Arr. at Smyrna . . Sat., 3 a. m.

Tues. 7 p. m. Dep. from Smyrna . Sun., noon.

Thurs. , 8a. m. Dep. from Chios . . Sun., 4 p. m.

Frid., 4 a. in. Dep. from Rhodes . Mon., 9 p. m.

Frid., 11 a. in. Dep. from Larnaka . Mon., 4 p. m.

Sat., 3 p. m. Arr. at Beirut . . . Thurs., 5a.m.

Sat., 11 p. m. Dep. from Beirut. . Frid., 7 a. m.

Sun., 6 a. m. Dep. from Haifa . . Frid., noon.

Sun., 10. a. m. Dep. from Yafa . . Sat., 4 p. m.

Sun., 1. p. m. Dep. from Port Said Sun., 6 p. m.

Mon., 2 a. m. Arr. at Alexandria . Mon., noon.

Dep. fr. Alexandria . Dep. fr. Port Said . Dep. from Yafa . . Dep. from Haifa . . Arr. at Beirut . . Dep. from Beirut Dep. from Larnaka . Dep. from Rhodes Dep. from Chios . . Arr. at Smyrna . . Dep. from Smyrna . Dep. from Mytilini . Dep. from Tenedos . Dep. fr. Dardanelles Dep. from Gallipoli At Constantinople

FARES

to

a

•^

'Z2

r3

(in Jtorinx)

a

5

'■5

,3

„,

3

'5

CO

a

o

from

o

a

u

03

C

& i — i

a a

o o

<£ <*

SB

u O

u

a

<

m

n

K-

O

o a

t-

£

3j

CO

CO

t*

Alexandria . . J

1

2

-

55 40

91 68

46 33

81 60

98

72

37 27

95 69

20 14

83 61

62

46

132 92

Beirut . . t . j

1

56

— i

157

10

140

110

18

107

35

95

76

187

2

41

—

115

7

103

81

13

78

25

71

57

134

Brindisi . . . j

1

95

147

—

138

15

103

132

78

114

62

83

50

2

70

108

—

102

11

74

96

56

84

44

59

36

Constantinople . j

1

98

112

101

125

81

131

48

124

38

32

133

2

72

82

73

91

58

—

95

34

89

27

23

96

Corfu . . , . j

1

81

135

13

127

—

80

118

57

101

42

61

53

2

60

99

9.60

93

—

58

87

40

73

30

43

39

Haifa . . . . j

1

45

9.20

135

—

126

121

6.20

119

25

106

86

173

2

33

6.80

99

93

87

4.70

87

18

77

64

123

i

1

98

112

74

126

55

46

132

126

8.60

27

107

Pirteus (Athens) j

2

72

81

54

91

39

33

96

90

6.60

20

78

Port Said . . 1

1

20

32

111

24

101

120

10

118

—

104

82

148

2

14

23

82

18

73

87

11.60

85

—

75

60

105

Smyrna . . . j

1

62

75

83

89

63

33

94

31

88

18

—

115

2

46

57

59

65

44

24

69

22

64

12

—

83

Syra .... J

1

90

103

60

117

43

38

122

11

116

—

18

96

2

65

76

43

84

30

28

89

8

83

13

69

Trieste • • • j

1

132

182

46

174

54

132

164

108

149

96

113

—

2

91.35

130

33

123

39

95

117

79

105

69

82

—

Varna . . . . j

1

114

127

116

142

95

17

145

63

141

52

49

145

2

83

93

84

103

69

12.20

105

46

102

38

35

106

Yafa ....

1

39

18

131

9

120

128

—^

126

18

113

93

166

2

28

12

96

6.50

88

93

—

92

13

82

69

118

Passengers in the first cabin are allowed 165 lbs. of luggage, and in the second 56 lbs. ; overweight according to tariff. Return- tickets for four months at a reduction of *20 per cent. A discount of 20 per cent is also allowed when three single tickets are pur-

14 MODE OF TRAVELLING.

chased by one party. These reductions are not extended to that proportion of the fare which is charged for food.

Russian Steamers. From Constantinople a J From Alexandria fort-

fortnightly departure.

every alternate . . Wed. p. m.

From Smyrna . . . Frid. a. m.

From Tripoli . . . Thurs. p. m.

From Beirut . . . Frid. a. m.

From Yafa Sun. a. m.

At Alexandria . . . Tuesday.

nightly, every alter- nate Sat. p. m.

From Yafa . . . Monday.

From Beirut . . Wed. a. m.

From Tripoli . . Thurs. 10a.m.

From Smyrna . . Thurs. 4. p.m.

At Constantinople . Sat. a. m.

(6 '). Mode of Travelling.

There are as yet no railways in Syria, but one from Yafa to Jerusalem has for some years been projected. A firman authorising its construction was granted in September, 1875, but it is doubtful whether it will pay. as there is no trade of importance in the cul de sac of Southern Palestine , and the yearly influx of pilgrims is of but short duration. Traces of Roman military roads are still numerous , but the only modern roads in Syria are the diligence route over Mt. Lebanon from Beirut to Damascus , which was con- structed by a French company (R. 26), and the road from Yafa to Jerusalem (R. 2). In the absence of railways, roads, and carriages, the traveller has therefore no alternative but to ride, in accordance with the custom of the country.

Horses (khe I, caravan-horse gedtsh). Oriental horses are generally very docile , and may therefore be safely mounted by the most inexperienced rider (comp. p. 19). In climbing rough and precipi- tous paths they are so nimble and sure-footed that the traveller will soon accustom himself to remain in the saddle at places where in other countries one would hardly venture even to lead a horse. The saddles and bridles are generally bad (see p. 18). The horse- owner or muleteer and his servants are called mukari, a word sometimes corrupted by Europeans to 'muker'.

Camels (for riding dhelul, in Egypt hegln ; for burdens jemel ; the Arabian camel with one hump is the only one known in Syria). The patient 'ship of the desert', which the traveller need never use except for a long journey through the desert (comp. R. 32), is a sullen looking animal; and although he commands our respect, and even admiration, he rarely gains our affection. The difference between camels bred and trained for riding and camels of burden is quite as great as that between saddle and cart horses. Riding on the former is far from unpleasant ; but as those of the best class are not easily procured, travellers are often compelled to ride on ill- trained animals of uneasy gait, sometimes even on mere camels of burden, and it is of this class only that complaints can justly be made.

MODE OF TRAVELLING. 1 5

In hiring a horse or camel it is of great importance to secure a well-trained animal of easy gait ; and, having done so, the traveller should carefully note its colour, size, and other peculiarities, as it is a very common trick of the owner, after the completion of the con- tract, to substitute an inferior animal for the one selected. Jn the case of horses, mules, and donkeys the traveller should also satisfy himself that they are free from the sores from which they too often suffer; and he should ascertain, if possible, that they are not ad- dicted to lying down and rolling, a habit in which beasts of burden are sometimes apt to indulge. Before starting it is usual to give the owner a ghabun , or earnest-money , which falls to be deducted from the final reckoning.

As we have already remarked, the traveller in Syria will find little room for variety in the style of travelling. We may, however, enumerate four different plans for his consideration.

I. With Dragoman and Tents. Travellers who are unacquainted with the language and customs of the country will find a dragoman (Arabic terjumdn) almost indispensable.

The word dragoman is derived from the ChaldEean 'targem1 to explain ('targum' explanation). The Arabic 'terjem' signifies to interpret. A dragoman was therefore originally a mere interpreter and 'cicerone'. In Egypt dragomans have existed as a class since the time of Psammetichus I. (7th cent. B. C), the first monarch who admitted travellers to his dominions, from which strangers had previously been excluded with the utmost jealousy. Herodotus mentions these dragomans as a distinct caste. He tells us that Psammetichus directed a number of Egyptian children to be educated by Greeks, and it was these children who became the progenitors of the Egyptian caste of interpreters.

Dragomans in Syria are more than mere interpreters ; they are contractors for the management of tours and of caravans, and they relieve the traveller of all the difficulties of preparation and of intercourse with the natives. Throughout the whole journey they are useful in many important particulars ; but in knowledge of the country, and especially of its antiquities, they are often sadly deficient. So accustomed are they, moreover, like the horses and their owners, to certain beaten tracks, that it is often a matter of great difficulty to induce them to make the slightest deviation from the usual routes, which in all probability have been followed by the caravans for many centuries. It is customary for the traveller to «nter into a written contract with the dragoman, and to get it signed by him and attested at the consulate, Printed forms of contract are as yet procurable at the American consulate at Jerusalem only. Many travellers bring their dragomans from the Nile to Syria ; but, now that the Nile voyage is frequently made by steamer, this is less usual than formerly.

The contract should if possible be drawn up in a language intelligible to the dragoman, in order that he may not have any pretext for deviating from its teTms. French, English, Italian, and •sometimes German, are the Western languages most commonly

16 MODE OF TRAVELLING.

understood by the dragomans. The annexed form of contract is; one which includes almost every possible detail.

Contract. The following contract , dated , has been

entered into between the travellers A. and B. and the dragoman C.

§ 1. The dragoman C. binds himself to conduct the travellers A. and B., two in number, from Jerusalem to Beirut by way of Nabulus, Jenin, Carmelj Acre, Nazareth, Tiberias, Safed, Banias, Damascus, 'Ain Fijeh, Zebedani, Ba'albek, and Shtora.

§ 2. The dragoman binds himself to defray the whole cost of the said journey, including transport, food, expense incurred through delays, bakhshish, fees for visiting mosques and churches, and outlay for all excursions and digressions.

§ 3. The dragoman binds himself to provide for the daily use of the said travellers . . . horses witli good bridles and European (or Arabian) saddles, including . . . ladies' saddles, and . . . strong mules or horses for the transport of the travellers' luggage ; also to provide fodder for the said horses and mules sufficient to keep them in health and strength. In case he do not provide fodder sufficient, the travellers shall have power to purchase enough to make up the deficiency, and to deduct the amount from the final payment to be made to the dragoman.

§ 4. The travellers shall not be liable for any damage which may be occasioned by the fall of the horses, by theft, or in any other manner, unless by their own fault. They shall be entitled to use the horses daily as much as they please, and also to make di- gressions while the beasts of burden follow the ordinary track. They shall likewise have power to prevent the overloading of the beasts of burden, either by their owner or by the dragoman, in order that the speed of the journey may not be unduly retarded.

§ 5. The dragoman shall provide one good tent (or . . . good tents for two persons each), and for each traveller one complete bed, with clean mattresses, blankets, sheets, and pillows. The whole of the materials necessary for encamping, including a table aiid chairs sufficient for the party, shall be in good condition ; otherwise, the travellers shall be entitled to cause them to be repaired at the ex- pense of the dragoman.

§ 6. When the drogoman is unacquainted with the route, he shall always engage well-informed guides. He shall also, when necessary, provide watchmen to guard the tents by night, and an escort to accompany the travellers by day, and take every measure necessary for the safety of the party, all at his own expense.

§ 7. The dragoman shall provide a good cook, and a sufficient number of servants and of attendants for the horses, in order that there may be no delay in packing and unpacking. The servants and attendants shall avoid disturbing the travellers at night or annoy- ing them in any way, and shall be in every respect obedient and obliging.

MODE OF TRAVELLING. 17

§ f$. Breakfast shall consist daily of . . . dishes with coffee (tea, chocolate, etc.) ; luncheon, at midday, of cold meat, fowls, eggs, and fruit; dinner, at the end of the day's journey, of . . . dishes, followed hy coffee (tea, etc.). The travellers shall he supplied with oranges at any hour of the day they please. The dragoman shall provide . . . bottles of wine for each traveller per day. (Or : the dragoman is hound to provide for the carriage, without extra charge, of any wine, beer, etc., which the travellers may purchase for the journey.)

§ 9. The dragoman shall he courteous and obliging towards the travellers ; if otherwise, they shall he entitled to dismiss him at any time before the termination of the journey. The travellers shall have liberty to fix the hours for halting and for meals, and choose the places for pitching the tents. They shall in every re- spect be masters of their own movements, and the dragoman shall not be entitled to interfere.

§ 10. The dragoman shall have everything in readiness for starting on . . . April, at . . . o'clock, from and including which day the journey shall occupy, or shall be reckoned as occupying, eighteen days at least, to which the travellers shall have liberty to add days of rest whenever they desire. The dragoman shall not he entitled to make any chaTge for his return-journey.

§ 11. The travellers shall pay the dragoman for each day during the whole journey the sum of . . . francs. In towns or villages, such as Damascus, Haifa, etc., the travellers shall have the option of living at hotels, or monasteries, or in the tents, all at the cost of the dragoman.

Or: During the stay of the travellers at Damascus, Beirut, etc., they shall have the option of lodging at a hotel at their own ex- pense, during which time the dragoman shall receive no payment; but, if they desire it, they shall be entitled to use the horses on payment of their daily hire (3 — 4 fr. each).

§ 12. In case any dispute should arise between the dragoman and the travellers, he hereby undertakes to submit to the decision of the matter by the nearest British consul.

§ 13. The dragoman shall receive payment of one-half (or one- third) of the estimated minimum cost of the journey before starting, and the remaining half (or two-thirds) on the termination of the whole journey. He is prohibited from asking the travellers for mo- ney during the journey.

Signatures.

A. B. C, Dragoman.

Consular attestation and stamp.

1, the undersigned C, acknowledge receipt of . . . francs from Messrs. A and B, as the first instalment of one-half (or one-third) of the estimated minimum cost of the above journey.

Date. C, Dragoman.

Palestine. 2

18 MODE OF TRAVELLING.

Remarks on § 1. The route should be laid down beforehand with the utmost possible accuracy, as the Mukari, or muleteers, always endeavour to take the shortest way without the slightest regard to points of interest lying off the beaten track.

On § 2. If the traveller is satisfied with the muleteers, he may give them a bakhshish at the end of the journey. If. during the journey, they are importunate for bakhshish for every trifling service rendered, they will be most effectually checked by silence on the part of the traveller.

On § 3 (a). Biding Gear. On a long journey the comfort of the traveller depends to a great extent on the character of the horses and on the kind of saddle used. Riding day after day on an uneasy horse, or on a bad saddle, or both, is very fatiguing. The Arabian saddles are narrow, very high before and behind, and unpadded ; the rider cannot alter his position ; and, unless they are well covered with rugs, they are very apt to cut ot rub the skin. A European saddle should therefore invariably be stipulated for. Those who contem- plate a journey of unusual length will And it desirable to have a saddle of their own, which may either be purchased at Alexandria, or brought from home, packed in a box made for the purpose, and fastened with straps to keep it in place and prevent its being injured. Bags for hanging over the horses' backs, and straps for fastening various objects to the saddle, are also useful. The Arab generally carries on his saddle a small double pouch (khurj), which the trav- eller will find very convenient, though apt to fall off a European saddle if not strapped. They may be purchased at Jerusalem for 5 — 6 fr. each, but a better choice is to be had at Damascus. The muleteers sometimes make difficulties about putting the trav- ellers' own saddles on their horses, as they have then to carry other saddles for the return-journey, but the travellers should insist on having their own way. Saddles for which the traveller has no far- ther use may be sold at the end of the journey. — Ladies' saddles are not easily procured, and the muleteers who have them generally stipulate for an extra bakhshish from the traveller or from the dra- goman. — Good bridles are rarely to be had except at Beirut. The horse-owners prefer the Arabian bit, which lies on the horse's tongue, to the European snaffle and curb, with the use of which they are unacquainted. Spurs may sometimes be useful, but it is preferable to be provided with a whip of hippopotamus leather, which may be purchased in Egypt or at Jerusalem for about 3 fr.

(b). Luggage. For a journey into the interior of the country the traveller should endeavour to dispense with all articles of luggage not absolutely necessary, as heavy baggage not only greatly increases the cost and trouble, but often materially diminishes the speed of travelling. Heavy trunks are unsuitable, owing to their cumbrous- ness and the difficulty of packing them so as to weigh equally on each side of the baggage horses. Small portmanteaus and bags of

MODE OF TRAVELLING. 19

solid leather, with good locks, are far preferable, being more easily and quickly packed, and more readily adjusted on the horses' backs. Those who make short excursions from headquarters where they are making some stay will of course be able to reduce their 'impedi- menta' to a minimum.

On § 4. On long journeys the horses should be made to walk or amble at a good steady pace, but seldom allowed to trot or gal- lop, as they would thereby be unduly fatigued for the next day's march. The riding-gear, moreover, is generally in such a condition that a rapid pace implies serious risk of breakages and mishaps. This should be particularly borne in mind in a country where in case of an accident no medical aid is procurable. The conductors of Oriental caravans generally make the first day's journey a short one, in order that their beasts may gradually shake off the inacti- vity of the stable ; and for the traveller himself this course is not undesirable. As the horses are accustomed to march in single file, the rideT should take care not to be too near his neighbour, as kicking horses are not uncommon. With a little patience and persuasion horses can generally be got to walk abreast, but mules are much more inveterately addicted to their single file. Riding behind the baggage-horses, as the mukari would fain make the traveller do, is intolerably slow and tedious. In many cases, there- fore, we indicate side-paths and digressions, which will often enable the traveller to escape from the baggage train , and of which he should avail himself without the least regard to the remonstrances and warnings of the muleteers. Many of the horses are so quiet and sure-footed that the rideT may safely let go the reins altogether. When mounting, the traveller should direct the muleteer to hold the right stirrup, to prevent the not uncommon slipping round of the saddle ; and on dismounting he should see that his horse is pro- perly secured and prevented from straying.

On § 7. The attendants have a very common and annoying habit of tethering their horses close to the tents, and of chatting half the night so loudly as effectually to prevent the traveller from sleeping.

On § 8. The items of the bill of fare may be stipulated for according to taste. Dinner should always be postponed till the day's journey is over, and the same may be said of indulgence in alcoholic beverages in hot weather, as riding is otherwise apt to be uncomfortably soporific. Fresh meat is rarely procurable except in the larger towns and villages, and then generally in the morning only. Fowls and eggs are always to be had, but are apt to pall on the taste. The bread which the dragoman proposes to take should be inspected. The Arabian bread, a thin round kind of biscuit, is only palatable when fresh. Frank bread, of which the dragoman should have a good supply, soon gets very stale, and should therefore be in the form of as large loaves as possible. The traveller may

2*

20 MODE OF TRAVELLING.

also stipulate for preserves of various kinds, which are to he had at the larger towns. He had better buy his own wine ; claret or Bur- gundy is the best. On the route from Jerusalem to Damascus, Haifa. is the only place where a supply can be obtained. The sweet wine of the country is uurefreshing and unwholesome. If, as rarely hap- pens, the dragoman is entrusted with the purchase of wine, it should be tasted before starting. An abundant supply of tobacco, which need not be of very good quality, should be taken for the purpose of keeping the muleteers, escorts, and occasional guides in good humour.

On § 9. The stages of the journey depend on the distances be- tween the wells and places where provender is procurable. The start should always be made early, in order that time may be left at the end of the journey for rest or a refreshing walk before dinner.

On § 10. This article is for the protection of the dragoman, and is to prevent his being arbitrarily dismissed at a distance from home and without compensation. As a dragoman rarely has the oppor- tunity of making more than two or three journeys of any length during one year, it is natural that he should stipulate for as high a minimum of days for the journey as possible, and it is but fair that a certain sum at least should be secured to him, as otherwise he might reasonably decline to enteT into the contract.

The chaTges of the dragomans are high, partly because the duration of their harvest is short, and partly because many travellers are too Teady to give whatever is demanded. There have moreover been of late various government and other expeditions in Syria, whose members have been unnecessarily lavish in their expenditure, and therefore unjust to succeeding travellers.

On § 11. The traveller will sometimes, for the sake of change, prefer sleeping at a hotel to camping in his tent, and it is there- fore important that he should reserve liberty to do so at pleasure. When the dragoman is bound to defray the hotel expenses, he ob- tains a considerable reduction from the landlords, paying not more than 8 — 10 fr. per day for each traveller, and being himself boarded and lodged gratuitously. Those who are likely to make a prolonged stay at hotels should therefore consider, before entering into the contract, what stipulations on this head are most advantageous. Again, at places where some stay is to be made, the dragomans often dismiss the original horses, or some of them, and hire fresh ones, in which case, especially as the baggage hoTses are not required, the traveller may fairly stipulate for a considerable reduction on the sum to be paid for each marching day.

II. WithDbagoman, but without Tents. This mode of trav- elling will suit very few travellers, and for ladies it is quite im- practicable. On all the more frequented tracks there are caravan- serais or khans, and at the larger villages there are houses or rooms where travellers are accommodated, but unfortunately such places always swarm with veTmin (see p. 29). The cottages of the pea-

MODE OF TRAVELLING . 2 1

santry and their floors are generally of mud, which harbours fleas innumerable. When such a room is taken possession of. the straw matting which covers the floor should be taken up and thoroughly beaten, and the whole place carefully swept and sprinkled with water. Every article of clothing belonging to the inmates should also be removed to another room. Even after these precautions the room will often be barely habitable. Bugs are less common, except where the houses are chiefly built of wood. The tents of the Bedu- ins are free from these insects , but on the other hand are terribly infested with lice. 'Persian' insect powder , which is sold at a somewhat exorbitant price at Jerusalem and Beirut only, and camphor, are indispensable for a journey of this description, and had better be brought from home, where they are of better quality and less expen- sive. Scorpions abound in Syria, but they seldom sting unless irritated (p. 52). They are often found under loose stones. If the bed is slightly raised from the ground, the sleeper is quite safe from their attacks. Mosquitoes aTe troublesome in the height of summer, and in marshy places, but Syria generally is tolerably free from these tormentors, as the nights are too cold for them. Gauze or mosquito ~be&-<sxiTta,ms(namusiyeh) are used to prevent their intrusion at night.

Those who are not deterred by these drawbacks may dispense "with a tent. Nor is bedding an absolutely necessary item of the baggage, as a blanket or carpet is always procurable as a substitute. The baggage train, moreover, need not be swelled with horses laden with comestibles, as the dragoman will generally have no difficulty in providing fowls, rice, burghul (p. 45), eggs, and Arabian bread. For the traveller who desires to become thoroughly acquainted with •the customs and resources of the natives, this style of travelling is not without its attractions ; it is of course much less costly than the first named, as many expensive items are dispensed with, and its accompanying element of adventure and independence will recom- mend it to some. The cost of a journey of this kind will be about 30 — 35 fr. per day for a single traveller, about 25 fr. each for two, ■20 fr. for thTee, and 15 — 18 fr. for a larger party. We must, how- ever, mention, that it is not always possible to induce a dragoman to enter into a contract of this character.

III. With Servants, but without Dragoman. A still bolder proceeding is entirely to dispense with the attendance of a dragoman, and to rely on the services of one or more trustworthy attendants, coupled with those of the muleteers. As the Syrians generally display marvellous aptitude for learning foreign languages, it will always be an easy matter for the traveller to find a native acquainted with French , English, or Italian , and competent to teach him a few of the most necessary Arabic words for the journey. Thus instructed , sup- plementing his vocabulary with signs when necessary, and provided with one or more native servants and a sufficient number of horses and muleteers, he may start on his novel, but in some respects most

22 MODE OF TRAVELLING.

interesting journey. Those who intend making a prolonged tour should purchase tents , bedding , and kitchen utensils for them- selves , all of which may be disposed of at the end of the journey. A man to act as valet and cook may be hired for 60 — 80 fr. per month. An attendant of this kind will act in many respects the part of a dragoman , but he should be made strictly to account for all his expenditure, as he is apt to charge his employer considerably more than he has expended for him. This kind of travelling be- comes still more venturesome and independent when tents are dispensed with, and accommodation is sought at khans, or villages, or the tents of Beduins , in the way already mentioned. The annoyance of repeated bargaining with the mukari may be avoided if the traveller purchases, instead of hiring, the horses necessary for his journey ; but as this plan involves a larger staff of servants, and gives rise to various unforeseen difficulties and items of ex- penditure, it can hardly he recommended. In hiring horses the traveller should make a point of inspecting them previously ; for, if he leaves this important matter to his servants, he is almost certain to be victimised.

The rates of horse -hire, as already observed (p. 6), are very fluctuating. During the spring travelling season a good horse can rarely be hired at Jerusalem under 6 fr. per day, and 8 — 10 fr. are even occasionally demanded. In treating with the muleteers it is advisable always to reckon the charges in piastres. "When a tour of any length is contemplated, a written contract between the traveller and the mukari should be drawn up in Arabic by the dragoman of the consulate, somewhat in the following terms : —

§ 1. The mukari shall provide the travellers A andB. with . . . horses , consisting of . . . saddle-horses with European saddles (or without saddles), and . . . baggage-horses (or mules).

§ 1. The route shall be from Jerusalem to Damascus, via ;

it shall begin on the morning of . . , and occupy at least . . days ; but the travellers shall have full liberty to make whatever digres- sions they please, and to choose halting-places for the day or night.

§ 3. The horses (and mules) shall be well fed ; if otherwise, the travellers shall be entitled to purchase provender for them at the expense of the mukari. They shall be laden with nothing except what the travellers authorise.

§ 4. The whole cost of food for the attendants , as well as for the horses, shall be defrayed by the mukari. The attendants shall be . . in number, and they must be well acquainted with the route.

§ 5. The travellers shall pay for each of the . horses the sum of 35 piastres per day , 50 fr. of the whole sum to be paid to the mukari before starting, and the residue at the end of the journey

§ 6. In case of dispute the mukari shall submit to the decision of the matteT by the nearest British consul.

Signatures, etc.

MODE OF TRAVELLING. 23

Remark on § 3. The mukari , from motives of economy, some- times take a considerable part of the barley which they require for their cattle from the starting-point, and therefore overload the horses so much as seriously to retard the rate of travelling. Sometimes, too, they add a donkey to the train to carry this supply of provender, and, to make matters worse, ride upon it themselves. All encroachments of this kind should be strenuously resisted.

On § 4. If the travellers are satisfied with their mukari they may give him the remains of their meals when convenient , or an occasional loaf of bread. He and his frugal attendants will be grateful for such contributions when they are not permitted to regard them as their rightful perquisites.

IV. With a Muleteer only. Lastly the enterprising traveller, whose love of adventure and independence is stronger than his dislike to privations , may dispense with personal attendants and start on his journey with a mukari only. The contract will be of the same character as the last mentioned. This of course is the cheapest mode of travelling , as fewest horses are required ; while, as the traveller caters for himself, the expense and ex- tortions of attendants are avoided. For a frugal meal and a night's lodging at the house of a farmer or peasant 4 — 5 fr. will generally suffice foT one person , or 3 — 4 fr. each for a party. If a cook be attached to the party he should be directed to pay ready money for all eatables , in which case 2 — 3 fr. for a night's lodging for each person will suffice. A supply of sugar for the children of the peasants will be found useful. Luggage , weapons , and saddles should be safely housed for the night ; if left outside , they are sure to be handled by curious bystanders, if not damaged or stolen.

(7]. Equipment. Health.

Dress. A few remarks on this subject will not be unacceptable to the less experienced of our readers. In order that the traveller may not be overburdened with luggage on his riding tour, we recommend him not to take with him more than a couple of suits of clothes, light in colour, but of woollen material, as the mornings and evenings are often cold during the travelling season. A darkeT suit, though not essential , may be added for wearing in towns , visiting consuls, attending divine service, etc. , but dress clothes are quite unnecessary. If the journey is to be prolonged into the middle of summer , a suit of flannel , or the lightest possible tweed , and another of cotton material for the hottest weatheT will be indispen- sable. Such garments may be purchased in the larger towns , but are more satisfactory when brought from home. Linen clothing is not recommended. Flannel or soft cotton shirts are the most suit- able. StaTched linen shirts cannot be property washed except in the larger towns.

24 EQUIPMENT.

Woollen stockings aud strong boots or shoes are essential to comfort, as most travellers will generally have occasion to walk considerable distances, and often over very rough ground. Knicker- bockers are pleasant both for walking and riding. Those who do not wear them should take trouser-straps for riding. Shoes that are easily taken off should be worn when a visit is about to be paid at an Oriental house (p. 36). Slippers are procurable almost every- where, and, if not, Arabian shoes (at 15—25 piastres) may serve the purpose.

The best covering for the head is a 'Billy-cock' hat, or a pith helmet (Tress's), as these afford both shade and ventilation. In the hottest weather a 'puggery' may be added — i. e. an ample piece of strong white or grey muslin , the ends of which hang down in broad folds at the back as a protection against sunstroke. Straw- hats do not afford sufficient protection against the rays of a southern sun, and felt hats are too hot foT the head. Some travellers prefer the tarbush, or fez, a red cloth skull cap with black silk tassel, over which, in Arabian fashion, they tie a silk keffiyeh (manufactured in the country, 15 — 20 fr. each; see p. 89). extending from under the chin to the top of the head , and falling down behind in a triangular shape. This head-dress protects the cheeks and neck ad- mirably against the sun, and will not be found too warm if a folded pocket-handkeTchief or a white cotton cap be worn under the fez. White parasols or sun-shades of tolerable quality may be purchased in the larger towns foT 4 — 5 fr. each. It is fatiguing to carry them for any length of time when riding ; but in towns they are most useful. An umbrella may probably be dispensed with , as it does not afford much shelter to riders, and as rain does not often fall during the travelling seasons, while in towns and villages shelter from a passing shower is easily obtained. If not provided with a waterproof overcoat, the traveller may purchase an Arabian 'abayeK, or Beduin mantle of native manufacture, which will answer the same purpose tolerably well. The wide brown 'Bagdad cloaks' of finer texture cost about 30 fr. each, the coarser striped mantles 15 — 20 fr. Light shawls of flue white wool , well adapted for keeping off dust, may also be purchased. A blue or green gauze veil is a most useful protection against glare , dust , and insects. On some occasions large spectacles of neutral tint will be pleasanter.

Miscellaneous. Travellers who deviate from the ordinary routes and intend to explore comparatively unknown districts may consult Oalton's Art of Travel (5th edit., 1872) for a complete description of their necessary outfit, the whole of which had better be brought from Europe. A few of the most important articles may be noticed here. A drinking-cup of leather or metal, a flask, a strong pocket- knife, a punch for making holes in leather straps, several good note- books, writing materials, straps and india-rubber rings, twine a pocket-compass of medium size, a thermometer, and an aneroid

HEALTH. 25

barometer are among the more indispensable articles, to -which the scientific traveller will add those pertaining to his special object of research. Blotting or stout cartridge paper is useful for ■obtaining impressions of inscriptions. This is done by wetting the paper, pressing it on the inscription with the aid of a brush, and removing it when dry. The impressions thus obtained may be rolled up and kept in a long round botanist's canister. A small charcoal filter will often be very useful. Presents for distribution among the natives are among the essential items for a tour of exploration ; these should include a few guns , loud ticking watches or clocks , etc. , besides a variety of trifling knick-knacks. Knives, scissors, nee- dles, and thread , bought wholesale , make oheap , portable , and always acceptable presents. The traveller himself should have a couple of trustworthy watches for his own use , including perhaps a 'remontoir' or keyless watch, as a watch-key lost during the jour- ney is not easily replaced. Good coffee, tea, and spirituous liquors are obtainable at the principal towns, but chocolate rarely.

Various other preparations are necessary if the traveller adopts the third of the above mentioned plans (p. 21). He will probably have to buy a tent with its belongings, which will cost 120 — 160 fr. in the travelling season, cooking utensils, a carpet, and a table and chairs. Bedding of the ordinary kind is cumbersome and may be left out of the list of requisites ; but a light, portable cork mat- tress, with waterproof flaps to cover the sleeper in rainy weather, is essential to comfort, as tents almost invariably leak. In case of necessity a pillow and a Ithaf, or large square Arabian quilted coverlet, together with a carpet, form a tolerable though very hard couch. If these articles aTe not to be had ready made, the materials must be purchased and given to a tailor to make up. Those who wish to be luxurious may be provided with a hammock, the adjustment and use of which, however, require a little practice. Sleeping on the ground is often unsafe, unless, in addition to carpets and blankets, a sheet of waterproof material be spread under the sleeper. A fdnus, or Arabian lantern , and candles should be taken for lighting the tent and the rooms in which quarters for the night are obtained; candle-boxes with candlesticks attached are also useful ; but best of all are the portable candle-lamps now made for reading in cabin, tent, or carriage. No comestibles need be taken, as they are procurable on all the ordinary routes, but a supply of rice and fat for occasional distribution among the mukari or escort is desirable. Lastly, a stock of needles and thread, cord and rope, and a hammer and axe should not be forgotten.

Health. Medical men are to be found at Jerusalem , Beirut, Aleppo, and Damascus, but nowhere else. The climate of Syria is not unhealthy, but the chilly mornings and evenings aTe often trea- cherous. Intermittent fever, of which fits of shivering are the pre- lude , is a frequent result of catching cold. Quinine is the best

26 BEGGARS.

remedy, of -which 1—3 doses should be taken on the days when the patient is free from fever. Rest and copious perspiration will also> materially aid in affording relief.

Diarrhoea , a very common complaint in this country, is often caused by eating unripe fruit. In purchasing fruit in the markets, therefore, gTeat care should be exercised. This disorder is also- sometimes the result of a cold. Remedies against it, such as the concentrated tincture of camphor, had better be brought from home. A simple farinaceous diet , with tea , and well matured red wine, will be beneficial in such cases, while fruit, meat, and fat are to be avoided. In cases of diarrhoea, as well as of fever, the only effectual remedy will be sometimes found to be a change of climate, especially if the patient is residing in a marshy or unhealthy neighbourhood. A stock of slightly aperient medicines, effervescingpowders, sticking- plaster, lint , etc. will also be useful, all of which should be care- fully kept from exposure to moisture.

As sunstroke is common in Syria , even in comparatively cool weather, the neck and head should be well protected with broad- brimmedhat, veil, etc. (p. 24). When headache is caused by exposure to the heat, the usual remedies are rest and shade, cold compresses, a warm bath, and applications of cold wateT to the head and neck. Ophthalmia and other diseases of the eye are less common in Syria than in Egypt. Grey spectacles may be used with advantage when the eyes suffer from the glare of bright and hot weather. Zinc eye- wash, ot some other innocuous lotion will afford relief in such cases.

In a country where riding and walking are the only modes of travelling it need hardly be said that it is of especial importance to avoid risk of sprains, bruises, and over-fatigue in exploring ruins, botanising, geologising, or sight-seeing. An ordinary sprain is most effectually treated with cold compresses , and the injured part should be tightly bandaged and allowed perfect rest.

(8). Beggars. Bakhshish.

Most Orientals regard the European traveller as a Croesus , and sometimes as a madman, — so unintelligible to them are the objects and pleasures of travelling. Poverty, they imagine, is unknown among us, whilst in reality we feel its privations far more keenly than they. That such erroneous views prevail is to some extent the fault of travellers themselves. In a country where nature's require- ments are few and simple, and money is scarce, a few piastres seem a fortune to many. Travellers are therefore often tempted to give for the sake of producing temporary pleasure at trifling cost , for- getting that the seeds of insatiable cupidity are thereby sown , to the infinite annoyance of their successors and the demoralisation of the recipients themselves. As a rule bakhshish should never be given except for services rendered, or to the sick and aged.

PUBLIC SAFETY. 27

In every village the traveller is assailed with crowds of ragged, half-naked children, shouting 'bakhshish, bakhshish, yd khowdja !' The best reply is to complete the Thyme with, 'ma fish, md fish' (there is nothing) , which will generally have the effect of dispersing them. A beggar may also be answered with the words 'Allah ya'tiV (may God give thee !), which always have a silencing effect.

The word bakhshish, which resounds so perpetually in the travel- ler's ears during his sojourn in the East, and haunts him long afterwards, simply means 'a gift', and as everything is to be had for gifts the word has many different applications. Thus with bakhshish the tardy operations of the custom-house officer are accelerated, bakhshish supplies the place of a passport, bakhshish is the alms bestowed on a beggar, bakhshish means black mail, and lastly a large proportion of the public officials of the country are said to live almost exclusively on bakhshish.

(9). Public Safety. Weapons. Escorts. Dogs.

Public Safety. Syria used , at no very distant period, to be regarded as a country overrun with robbers and assassins, but at the present day there is no danger whatever in traversing the more frequented routes. The consuls, moreover, are bound , and are always most willing to warn the traveller of any impending danger. On the less frequented routes, in the valley of the Jordan, and more particularly to the east of Jordan, danger from the nomadic Bedu- ins might perhaps be apprehended but for the custom of travellers in these parts to provide themselves with a Beduin escort (e. g. on the shores of the Dead Sea), to whom a fee of 5 fr. per day is usually paid. (The same charge is made for an escort of Turkish soldiers, e. g. on the excursion to Palmyra.) In return for these fees, a number of Beduin village shekhs , settled near Jerusalem , have undertaken to protect the interests of travellers, make compensation for thefts, etc., and the traveller who neglects to avail himself of this kind of insurance will profit little by appealing to his consul. Far higher demands are of course made for escorting travellers beyond Jordan, where the Turkish supremacy is but nominally recognised , and where, especially in the border districts, the petty shekhs affect to disdain francs and shillings , and often demand English sovereigns for their services.

The desert proper, the proprietorship of which is shared by certain tribes, is safer than the border land between it and the cultivated countr y . Its confines are infested with marauders of all kind s, but once in the interior of the territory of a desert-tribe, and under the protection of one of its shekhs , the traveller will generally meet with much kindness and hospitality. Feuds between the border tribes are not uncommon, and it would be rash to attempt to cross the desert when such are known to be going on ; but the writer has known instances

28 PUBLIC SAFETY.

where pretended attacks have been preconcerted between the Beduins and the dragoman in order to extort a higher bakhshish from the traveller, which was afterwards divided among the conspirators. Predatory attacks are occasionally made on travellers by Beduins from remote districts, but only when the attacking party is the more powerful. To use one's weapons in such cases may lead to serious consequences, as the traveller who kills an Arab immediately ex- poses himself to the danger of retaliation from the whole tribe.

Weapons. The sportsman should of course be provided with his gun and rifle , although the ordinary routes afford few oppor- tunities for sport. Many travellers rejoice in displaying a stock of revolvers and otheT arms, which add greatly to their importance in the estimation of the natives, but are not often brought into actual use.

In unsafe districts a guard should be posted outside the tents, and objects of value should be placed either under the traveller's pillow or as near the middle of the tent as possible, lest they should be within reach of hands intruding from the outside. In case anything should be missed, a complaint should at once be lodged with the shekh of the nearest village and also with the chief magistrate of the nearest town of importance. The traveller should likewise be on his guard against the thievish propensities of beggars.

Escorts. With regard to the fees to be paid to Beduin escorts in districts which do not recognise the Turkish supremacy, no definite rule can be laid down. In describing the different tours we shall mention the average charges of the last few years. Information on this head should be applied for at the consulates. The larger the party , the smalleT of course is the cost in proportion. In each case the arrangements must be made the subject of a special bargain.

The Beduins are generally obstinate to a most provoking degree, hoping to weary out the traveller by delay, and thus induce him to accept their exorbitant terms. They frequently demand a certain sum from each member of the travelling party , but it is moTe convenient and advantageous to stipulate to pay them a fixed sum in piastres for the whole party. Negotiations should be con- ducted through trustworthy agents, or through the medium of the consulate, never through unknown persons who officiously proffer their services.

Dogs. The numerous masterless, ill-looking dogs which the traveller encounters in the villages and towns, particularly in Da- mascus, are often a source of some alarm, but they fortunately never bite (comp. p. 50).

(10). Hotels. Monasteries. Hospitality. Khans. Hotels. Yafa, Jerusalem, Haifa, Damascus, Beirut, and Aleppo aTe the only places which boast of hotels properly so called, many of them having been opened quite recently. Most of these establish- ments are tolerably comfortable, but as the landlords and servants

HOSPITALITY. 29

are generally Syrian Christians (often retired dragomans ) , the arrangements are not so satisfactory as in European hotels. The average charge for board and lodging is 12 — 16 fr. (sometimes shillings) per day ; for a servant, 3 — 4 fr. For a prolonged stay a fixed 'pension' should be stipulated for. Wine is generally extra. Attendance is not charged in the bill. Orientals attract the attention of waiters by clapping their hands, and sometimes 'with the excla- mation — ' Ya weled' (Oh boy) I There are no restaurants in the European style in the East.

Monasteries. Most of the religious houses have accommodation for pilgrims , and also for travellers of the wealthier classes. The faTe is generally tolerable , although fasts are very frequent. The traveller is of course expected to pay as much as he would have done for the same accommodation at a hotel , although no formal charge is made. The monks are for the most part Italian Francis- cans (p. 88) , of gentle, obliging and self-denying dispositions. Protestant missionaries may also be applied to for accommodation, on the same understanding as to payment. The monasteries of Mt. Lebanon, those of the Maronites , and others, likewise afford quar- ters to travellers , but in these cases the food and the beds are in the Arabian style.

On arriving at a village, the traveller usually enquires for the house at which strangers aTe in the habit of alighting (Wrafcdnafc?'). Payment varies according to the accommodation; but a bargain should be made beforehand if possible.

Hospitality. At the towns and villages lying on the principal routes the traveller need not hesitate to ask for quarters in private houses , as the inmates are aware that the Franks always pay, and therefore receive them gladly. The dragoman or mukari should be sent to enquire where the party can be received ; and if there is a consular agent at the place, application should be made to that official. The rules as to Temoval of shoes and other points of Orien- tal etiquette (p. 36) should of course be strictly observed. Payment is made on the same principle as in the monasteries.

Khans. The Khan, or caravanserai (p. 20), which is generally suitable for the reception of the muleteers and horses only , and swarms with vermin , should never be resorted to except in case of absolute necessity.

(11). Cafes.

Coffee-houses abound everywhere , consisting of slight wooden booths, furnished with a few seats of plaited rushes. Those at Damascus are on a grander scale, containing chairs for the use of European visitors. The coffee, which is served in diminutive cups (finjdn), is not so good as in Egypt. It is usually presented to the customer highly sweetened, but may be asked for without sugar (sadeh), or with little sugar (shwoyyet sukkar). The coffee of the Be-

30

BATHS.

duins is the best, being always freshly roasted, and pounded in wooden mortars. Europeans are charged 20 paras (£ piastre) per cup, but natives half that sum only. The cafe' owner provides nargilehs, or water-pipes, for his guests. Natives bring their own tobacco with them (p. 33) ; the host charges other visitors half-a- piastre per pipe. The nargileh should never be smoked quite to the bottom. If a second is wanted , the request is made in the words 'ghayyir en-nefes' ( 'bring another pipe'), whereupon the bowl is removed and replaced by one fresh filled. To prevent contact with the mouthpiece of the stem (marbtsh), a small tube of paper may be inserted in it.

(12). Baths.

The baths used in Syria are tliose commonly known as Russian and Turkish baths. The Harara (see Plan), as well as the separate baths (Maghtas and Hanafiyeh), are roofed with flat ceilings, in which are openings covered with coloured glass. The maghtas contain a bath let into the pavement and a marble basin for washing, pro- vided with taps for cold and warm water, while the hanafiyeh have warm water only. All these chambers are paved with marble slabs. The harara, or public bath-chamber, is less heated than the sepa- rate rooms, and is filled with steam. All the chambers are heated by flues under the pavement and behind the walls.

I. Entrance. 2. Meslak (a kind of antechamber, where the poorer bathers undress). 3. FasKyeh (fountain). 4. Dlw&n (better dressing-rooms). 5. Coffee-seller. 6. Beit-el-awwel (warm dressing room for cold weather) 8. W. C's. 7. Entrance to the (9) Har&ra (or 'sudatorium'). 10. Dlw&n

II. Maghtas (chambers with basins).' 12. Hanafiyeh (chambers with basins

and taps for hot and cold water). '13. Furnaces. 14. Boilers

BATHS. 31

When a cloth is hung up at the entrance to the haths they are occupied by women only. The baths are always cleanest in the early morning. Friday is a day to be avoided, as numerous Muslims bathe earty on that day, which is their Sabbath.

The visitor first enters a large vaulted chamber covered with a cupola, having a fountain of cold water in the centre, and the bathing towels hung around on strings, these last being swung into their places or taken down with bamboo rods according to require- ment. The visitor is next conducted to one of the raised divans which are still unoccupied (those next the street are to be avoided), and having given his shoes to the attendant and had his divan covered with clean sheets, he proceeds to undress. Valuables may, if desired, be entrusted to the bath-owner. Wrapping a cloth round his loins , the bather now issues from his divan , and having been provided with pattens or wooden shoes (kabkab) he proceeds to the hot rooms in the interior of the baths, to which the attendant will show the way if required. These sweating-chambers are vaulted and dimly lighted from above. Near one of the basins here a linen cloth is spread for the bather , and he is now left to perspire. As soon as the skin is thoroughly moist, he calls for the attendant, who pulls and kneads the joints till they crack , a process to which Europeans are not generally subjected. This is followed by the pleasanter operation of shampooing, which is performed by the abu kts, or abu sdbun (_w hence 'shampoo')j ^ho is requested to do his duty with the word 'keyyisni', and who then rubs the bather with the kts, or rough piece of felt. The attendant next thoroughly soaps the bather , and concludes the ope- rations by pouring bowls of warm water over his head. If the water is too hot the bather may ask for cold ('jib moyeh bdrideh'), or say 'enough' (bes). After this douches of hot or cold water may be indulged in according to inclination , but the most refreshing plan is to change the temperature gradually from hot to cold, the direction to the attendant being '■moyeh bdrideh' ! When desirous of leaving the hot room, the bather says to the attendant 'jib el-fuwaf (bring the towels) , whereupon he is provided with one fo,r his loins, another for his shoulders, and a third for his head. The slippers or pattens are then put on, and the antechamber re-entered. When the kab- kabs are removed, cold water is sprinkled over the feet, fresh cloths are then provided., and the batheT at last throws himself down on his divan, wonderfully refreshed, yet glad to enjoy perfect repose for a short time. Every bath contains a coffee and pipe establish- ment. Coffee and hot eau sucree are the favourite beverages. Before dressing, the bather is generally provided with two or three more relays of fresh towels, and thus the proceedings terminate. — Many of the baths are charitable foundations , where the natives pay little or nothing. Europeans are generally expected to pay 5 piastres or more, and a fee of about 1 p. is given to the 'soap man'. Coffee, see p. 29. - — A Turkish bath is particularly refreshing after

32 BAZAARS.

a long journey , and is an admirable preventive of colds and rheu- matism, but if too often repeated sometimes occasions boils.

(13). Bazaars. Shops in the East, frequently connected with the workshops where the wares are made, are generally congregated together accord- ing to handicrafts in a certain quarter of the town, a street, or a lane, named after the respective trades, such as lSuk en-Nahhdsin' (market of the copper smiths), Joharjtyeh (of the jewellers), Khur- dajlyeh (of the ironmongers) , 'Assabtn (of the butchers), etc., and sometimes 'after a neighbouring mosque. In all the larger towns and villages there are extensive Khans, or depots of the goods of wholesale merchants, who however often sell by retail to strangers.

The shop (dukkdn) is a recess , quite open to the street, and generally about 6 ft. in depth, the floor being on a level with the mastaba, or seat in front , on which the owner smokes his pipe, retails his goods, chats with his friends, and performs his devotions. When the owner leaves his shop, he either hangs a net in front of it, or begs a neighbour to keep guard over it. The intending purchaser seats himself on the mastaba, and after the customary salutations proceeds to mention his wishes. Unless the purchaser is prepared to pay whatever is asked, he will find that the conclusion of a satisfactory bargain involves a prodigious waste of time and patience.

As a rule, a much higher price is demanded than will ulti- mately be accepted, and bargaining is therefore the universal custom. If the purchaser knows the proper price of the goods beforehand, he offers it to the seller, who will probably remark kalW (it is little), but will nevertheless sell the goods. The seller sometimes entertains the purchaser with coffee from a neighbouring coffee-shop in order to facilitate the progress of the negociations. If the shopkeeper insists on too high a price , the purchaser with- draws , but is often called back and at last offered the article at a reasonable price. A favourite expression with Oriental shopkeepers is 'khudu baldsh'' (take it for nothing) , which is of course no more meant to be taken literally than the well known 'bett bttak' (my house is thy house). When in the course of the bargaining the purchaser increases his offer in order to make a concession, he generally uses the expression lmin shdnak' (for thy sake). Persons who are in the habit of dealing with the natives sometimes resort to the expedient of asking the merchant what he has paid for Ms goods , a question which in the great majority of cases is answered truly. When the word of a Muslim is doubted, it is not uncommon to make him swear by the Koran or by the threefold divorce (taldk).

Nothing raises the traveller so much in the estimation of Orien- tals as firmness in resisting imposition ; but even the most wary and experienced must be prepared to pay somewhat higher prices for everything than the natives themselves. The charges mentioned in

TOBACCO. 33

the Handbook will generally afford the traveller an idea of the de- mands which may be justly made, but in Syria, as in most other countries frequented by travellers, prices have a strong upward ten- dency. The dragomans and valets-de-place are always in league with the shopkeepers , and if the traveller does his shopping under their guidance he is invariably charged a higher price , as these worthies receive a commission of 10 — 20 per cent on each purchase. — Antiquities, see p. 122.

Travellers who make purchases of more than ordinary bulk, or who have made collections of any kind , will find it convenient and comparatively inexpensive to send them home through one of the goods-agents at Jerusalem or Beirut (pp. 144, 437).

(14). Tobacco.

Cigar-smokers must endeavour to accustom themselves to the Ori- ental mode of smoking. Cigars are hardly to be had except at Beirut, and they are almost always dear and bad. The duty on im- ported cigars is high , and is often raised arbitrarily by the custom- house officers ; while on entering and quitting the principal towns renewed examinations of luggage are liable to take place , so that the traveller had better at once dispense with this luxury. The difficulties are hardly less formidable when tobacco is purchased in the country to take home.

In the East every one smokes pipes or cigarettes. The former had better be bought in the country itself; the latter the smoker must learn to make for himself. Strong tobacco (tiitiin) is takil, mild is khaftf. The price of a good quality per okka (2| lbs.) is 10 — 12 fr. The usual way of keeping it moist is to mix it with strips of carrot.

The Syrian tobacco is cut in long strips like the Turkish (stnm- buli) , but less regularly, and is often mixed with woody fibres. Many smokers prefer it to the Turkish , as the after-taste is pleasun- ter, and the mouth less parched. Korilni is light brown, Jebeli dark brown, the latter deriving its colour from being dried in the sttioke1 of resinous woods. The latter kind is called Lddikiyeh, or'Eatak'ia. in Europe, a name not applied to it in the East. TuriiWtlt '."or' Per- sian tobacco , is moistened , lighted with a particular 'kiiid'bf' char- coal, and smoked in the naryilehs or long, water-pipe's' dillyV TliAso who use this kind of pipe draw the smoke into theirl'tiiigs. '-Women generally smoke the nargileh, and peasants 'the' jfizeh (cohip.'p. 470/.

II! I'l'l I !>1H; ';!i , "II 'fill i" i'lil!lll"'i lit! II'. J ) J'lV/''. n!l -.

I 'I >' ■: y lif' i i tyiii ■ 1 1;

Down to the time, qfj the Crimean, , war, , ChRhstiaus.wer^ ia,re})» permitted to visit Muslim places of worship, but, in consequence of the increased influx of Europeans in the, Turkish .dominions isiuce that period, thej ajuf.ieiit exriiisiveiuess, has been greatly mpdifie,d,

Palestine. !>

('loV'SMstflid]

V Y ■ [-■u.iii '!ti

34 MOSQUES.

although strict Muslims still dislike to soc 'unbelievers' (Christians and Jews) enter their holy places. It need hardly be said that the visitor should show all possible consideration for the feelings of the worshippers ami his Muslim companions, should abstain from touch- ing the Korans lying about, and avoid doing anything calculated to arouse their well-known fanaticism. Visitors exchange their shoes at the entrance for slippers , which are generally provided for their use , but in some cases must be brought for the purpose. In some mosques it is held sufficient to put on galoshes or over-shoes, or to bind a cloth round the boots.

Mosques are divided, according to their form, into two leading classes : (1) Those which consist of a simple building surrounding a rectangular open court, with an internal arrangement of columns or pilasters ; ('2) Those where a court, either rectangular or cruciform, is surrounded by closed chambers. — The name jdm'a is applied to the large, or cathedral mosques, in which sermons (khutba) are preached on Fridays and prayers are offered up for the sovereign of the country. The general term for a place of worship is mesjid, even when it consists of a single chamber (mumlla) only.

Every jam'a possesses a court of considerable size, generally uncovered, called the fasha or «t/tn el-jdm'a, in the centre of which is the fountain for the ablutions (hanafiyeh) prescribed by the Mo- hammedan religion. Adjoining the E. side of the court is the makmra , containing the sacred vessels , and covered with carpets or mats.

The maksura contains: (1) The Mihrdb, or recess for prayer, turned towards Mecca (the Kibla), where the Koran is read; (2) The Mimbar, or pulpit, to the right of the Mihrab , from which the Kltatlb preaches to the faithful ; (3) The Kursi (plur. Kerdsi) , or desk, on which the Koran lies open during divine service (at other times the Koran is kept in a cabinet set apart for the purpose);

(4) The Dikkeh, a podium placed on columns and enclosed by alow railing, from which the Moballigh (assistants of the Khatib) repeat the words of the Koran for the benefit of the people at a distance ;

(5) The various lamps and lanterns (kan&dtl and fdnus) belonging to the mosque.

At the side of the sahn el-jam'a is another and smaller court, with a basin in the centre and niches along the walls. The worshipper generally enters this court before proceeding to the sahn el-jam'a. — Adjacent to the maksura usually rises the monument of the founder of the mosque, and further distant, by the principal entrance, is the SebU (fountain) with the Medreseh (school). These fountains are often richly adorned with marble and surrounded by handsome bronze railings. They are covered by a widely spreading roof, and above them is sometimes a more or less handsome hall for the school. A flight of several steps generally ascends to the railings where the water is distributed. The interior of the sebil consists

DWELLINGS. 35

of one large chamber only, raised about 3 ft. above the level of the street , where vessels are filled with water from the tank for distri- bution to the faithful.

The Muslims also perform their devotions at the grated windows of the mausoleums of their saints fshtkh, or voely) , behind which is seen a catafalque covered with carpets of every hue, where however the remains of the holy man are by no means invariably deposited. These welies (see p. 98) are observable all oveT the country , some- times built into the houses , and easily recognised by their outward appearance. They are cubical in form and covered with a dome, whence they derive the name of kubbeh ; they seldom cover an area of more than 20 — 30 sq. yds., they are generally whitewashed, and often empty and infested with scorpions.

(16). Swellings.

The private houses of Orientals are seldom more than two stories in height, and vary greatly in their construction. The following, however, is the most usual arrangement : (1) The Principal Rooms, particularly those of the Harem, look into the court or garden, if there is one. (2) The windows looking towards the street are small, at a considerable height from the ground, and closely barred, while those of the upper floor are closed with wooden lattices, which however are gradually giving way to glass windows with shutters. (3) The Corridor , which leads from the street into the court, takes an abrupt turn, in order that passers-by may not be able to see into the court. (4) The Court (hosh) is paved with slabs of stone, and frequently planted with orange and citron trees , with a large basin of clear water in the centre.

Close to the entrance to the court is the Mandara , or reception- room of the master of the house , from which a door covered with a curtain leads into the court. To the right and left of the passage run- ning in a straight direction from this door the floor is slightly raised. Visitors leave their shoes below , step upon the straw matting placed on this raised floor, and take their seats upon the divan which Tuns round three sides of the room. In the walls are gene- rally a number of cupboards , and higher up are shelves. Many rooms are adorned with enamelled inscriptions. In summer visitors are not received in the reception chamber, but under an open arch usually adjoining the court and facing the north. — A small door leads into a second court and to the women's apartments. The houses are very irregularly built, so that each apartment often seems to have been constructed without reference to any other. The ceilings are of wood and clay.

36

(17). Intercourse with Orientals.

Orientals accuse Europeans of doing everything the wrong way , such as writing from left to right , while they do the reverse, and uncovering the head on entering a room , while they remove their shoes , but keep their heads covered. The traveller should endeavour to habituate himself to the custom of taking off the shoes on entering a house , as it is considered a grave breach of politeness to tread upon the carpets with them. They should be left outside before stepping upon the straw matting with which every Teception-room is covered.

The following rules should be observed in paying a visit at an Oriental house. The visitor knocks at the door with the iron knocker attached to it, whereupon the question '•mivi (who is there ?) is usually asked from within. In the case of Muslim houses the visitor has to wait outside for a few minutes in order to give the women who happen to be in the court time to retire. He is then conducted into the reception-room , where a low divan or sofa runs round three sides of the room , the place of honour always being exactly opposite the door. According to the greater or less degree of respect which the host desires to show for his guest, he rises more or less from his seat, and approaches one or more steps towards him. The first enquiries are concerning the health (see p. 115). The transaction of business in the East always involves an immense waste of time, and as Orientals attach no value whatever to their time, the European will often find his patience sorely tried. If a visitor drops in and interrupts the business, it would be an unpardonable affront on the part of the host to dismiss him on the plea of being engaged. Again, when a visitor is announced at meal-time , it is de rigueur to invite him, at least as a matter of form, to partake. At all other hours visitors are supplied with coffee , which a servant , with Ms left hand on his heart , presents to each in turn, according to his rank. To be passed over when coffee is handed round is deemed by the Beduins an insult of the gravest kind. Having emptied his cup , the visitor must not put it down on the ground , which is contrary to etiquette , but keep it in his hand until it is taken from Mm by the servant , after which he salutes his host in the usual Oriental fashion by placing his right hand on his breast and after- wards raising it to his forehead. The longer the host wishes to have the company of his visitor , the later he orders the coffee to be brought, as the visitor cannot take his leave before partaking of coffee. This custom originated with the Beduins , who only re- garded the persons of their guests as inviolable after they had eaten or drunk with them. "When visited by natives, the European should in his turn regale them liberally with coffee, particularly when he has occasion to confer with his Beduin escort. — It is also usual to offer tobacco to the visitor, the cigarette being now the ordinary form.

INTERCOURSE WITH ORIENTALS. 37

The long pipe with amber mouth-piece , and its bowl resting on a brazen plate on the ground, is more in vogue with the Turks. Visitors are often asked whether they prefer the nargileh, or water- pipe, to the cigarette or the ordinary pipe ; and if they wish to try it, a servant brings it in and lights it for them. — All visits must of course be returned as in Europe. Those who return to a place after an absence receive visits from their acquaintance before they are expected to call on them.

Europeans, as a rule, should never enquire after the wives of a Muslim , his relations to the fair sex being sedulously veiled from the public. Even looking at women in the street or in a house is considered indecorous , and may in some cases be attended with danger. Intimate acquaintance with Orientals is also to be avoided, disinterested friendship being still rarer in the East than elsewhere! Beneath the interminable protestations of friendship with which the traveller is overwhelmed, lurks in most cases the demon of cupidity, the sole motive of those who use them being merely the hope of higher bakhshish than usual. The best way of dealing with persons who 'do protest too much' is to pay for every service or civility on the spot , and as far as possible to fix the price of every article be- forehand , a plan which is usually effectual in putting an end to their mercenary designs.

On the other hand the most ordinary observer cannot fail to be struck with the fact that the degraded ruffianism so common in the most civilised countries is quite unknown in Syria, and it will pro- bably occur to him that the modern expression 'street Arabs' is a misnomer and an insult to the people from whom it is inappropriately derived. The people of the country, even of the poorest and entirely uneducated class, often possess a native dignity, self-respect , and gracefulness of manner, of which, the traveller will grieve to admit, his own countrymen of a far higher status in society are for the most part utterly destitute. Notwithstanding their individual selfishness, too, the different native communities will be observed to hold together with remarkable faithfulness, and the bond of a common religion, which takes the place of 'party' in other countries, and requires its adherents to address each other as 'ya akhui' (my brother), is far more than a mere name.

While muchf caution and firmness are requisite in dealing with the people, it need hardly be added that the traveller should avoid being too exacting or suspicious. He should bear in mind that many of the natives with whom he comes in contact are mere children, whose waywardness should excite compassion rather than anger, and who often display a touching simplicity and kindliness of disposition. He should, moreover, do all in his poweT to sustain the well established reputation of the 'kilmeh frenfiytV, the 'word of a Frank', in which Orientals are wont to place implicit confidence.

38

(18). Post Office and Telegraph.

Postal Arrangements. Turkey, as well as the other countries of Europe, has joined the Bernese Postal Union, but the transmission of letters to foreign countries still takes place under the superin- tendence of the different consulates. Letters are received at the dif- ferent steamboat-offices in the coast-towns. The postage for Euro- pean letters of ^ oz. is 1 piastre, and for pamphlets 10 paras.

At Beirut there is also a British Post Office for letters to and from England ; and under the superintendence of the British consul letters are transmitted fortnightly to Bagdad, and thence to India. There is also a Russian Post Office for certain local traffic only, and a Turkish, managed by very ignorant officials, for the inland and coast service, except in so far as managed by the different consulates. Postage of a letter of t oz. , 1 piastre. The addresses for these inland offices should be in Turkish or Arabic, as well as in English.

Telegraph Offices. There aTe two kinds of telegraph offices in Syria, International and Turkish, the former class being included within the latter. Telegrams in Arabic and Turkish only are received at the Turkish offices, while at the international they may be written in any of the principal modern languages, particularly English, French, and German. The charge for an ordinary Turkish or Arabic telegram of 20 words within a governmental district is \ silver mejidi (10 piastres in government money), and for each addi- tional wilayet, or district, traversed, one-half more (5 piastres).

The following is the tariff for_iuternational telegrams of 20 words, from offices on the sea-coast : —

Germany 12 fr. Norway 15 fr.

Great Britain

Greece

Holland

London

From offices in the interior of the country an additional charge of 4 fr. is made for a telegram to Europe.

Telegrams should be written in a very bold and legible hand. Payment at the international offices should be made in French money, and at the Turkish in Turkish silver, as a considerable loss is incurred in the exchange of other currencies. If no international office is at hand , the telegram must be sent in Arabic or Turkish to the coast, where it is translated, and then forwarded to Europe. This had better be done through a mercantile house or a consulate.

II. Geographical Notice.

Geography. Climate. Geology. Flora. Fauna.

Geography. Syria is a country which possesses very marked

geographical limits, although the name was originally of much wider

application than at the present day. The subjects of the Assyrian

Austria

11 fr.

Belgium

13 -

Denmark

13 -

Egypt

13 -

France

14 -

12 fr.

Norway 15

16 -

Russia 13

8 -

Spain 16^

13 -

Sweden 15^

15 -

Switzerland 12

GEOGRAPHY. 39

Empire, from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, were known in ancient times as Assyrians, or, in the abbreviated form, Syrians. At a later period these two names came to have different applica- tions, and it became usual with the Greeks to apply the name of Syria to the more western of these regions. It should therefore be borne in mind that the Syrians were formerly, and to some extent still are, a people spreading considerably beyond the confines of modern Syria.

Syria, in the ordinary sense of the name, is the long and narrow district on the E. shore of the Mediterranean, extending from the highlands of the Taurus on the N. to Egypt on the S., between 36° 5' and 31° N. latitude, a distance of about 370 M. — Admirably adapted by its situation to form a connecting link between Europe, Asia, and Africa, it displayed within itself, more than any other country in the world, all the strongly contrasted characteristics of the different empires of antiquity. From time immemorial it has been inhabited by people of many different races, and its history has therefore been a singularly chequered one.

The country is divided lengthwise into several regions of very' different character. From N. to S. extends a range of hills, broken by but few transverse valleys. To the "W. of these hills lies the sea-board of the Mediterranean, a district which has witnessed some of the most important events of ancient times. To the E. ex- tends the interior of the country, a fertile steppe, which when arti- ficially watered yields the most luxuriant produce. This region, which is sometimes called the desert on account of its lack of water, extends at a mean level of 1900 ft. to the neighbourhood of the Euphrates. It is inhabited by independent, nomadic Beduins, and frequently traversed by caravans.

Syria in the wider sense of the woTd extends eastwards. as far as the Euphrates ; but, if it is taken as meaning that part of the country only which is cultivated and governed by the Turks , its eastern limit is the desert, and is therefore but vaguely defined. Whilst the seaboard, with its expanse of country more or less covered with sand, offers but little variety, and the desert none whatever, the intervening mountainous region presents numerous features of interest, which have not failed to exercise an influence on the inhabitants of that part of the country. An important con- necting link between the heterogeneous regions of the desert and the sea-board is formed by the great valley which extends from Antioch on the N. to the neighbourhood of the Red Sea towards the S.

Robinson conveniently divides the country into four different legions by thTee imaginary transverse lines drawn across it. The northern boundary of the most northern of these regions stretches from the Bay of Issus to the Euphrates, while its southern boundary is formed by a line dTawn from the river Eleutherus (Nahr el-Kebir) to Horns. This is N. Syria, a district rarely visited by tourists, but abounding in most interesting ancient ruins.

40 GEOGKAPHY.

The second line is diawn from a point a little S. of Tyre (Silr) towards the E., skirting the S. base of Hermon. Within this second zone would be included the ancient sea-board of Phoenicia, the most important part of Lebanon and Anti-Libanus, rising inland ; and, farther E. , the famous region around Damascus , the capital of Syria. — A third section , to the S. of the last , would be formed; by drawing a line from the S. E. angle of the Mediterranean towards the E. ; this region would be identical with the ancient Palestine from Dan to Beersheba, and would include the course of the Jordan. — The fourth region would consist of the desert Et-Tih, the 'Araba (the valley descending to 'Akaba), and to the E. of the latter the mountains of Petra, which properly speaking belong to Arabia.

Of these four sections of Syria the two extreme parts are less frequently visited by travellers than the other two, the difficulties, fatigue, and even danger to be encountered there being considerably greater. Our attention will therefore be chiefly directed to the two central sections , including Palestine and Lebanon , the former of which in particular justly claims the greatest attractions foT the majority of travellers, and will be treated of most fully in the Handbook.

With regard to scenery, the attractions steadily decrease as we proceed from N. to S. While the two northernmost of the four sections of the country possess the highest mountains in Syria, and beautiful, well -watered valleys, the southern regions are comparatively flat and sterile. In the midst of the table-land of the Beka'a, as the beautiful basin which separates Lebanon from Anti-Libanus is called, rise within a short distance of each other two streams , one of which , the Litany , flows towards the S. and after numerous sinuosities falls into the sea to the N. of Tyre, while the other, the Orontes, flowing towards the N., de- scribes a more circuitous route round the mountains before it reaches the sea. On the Anti-Libanus again rise two rivers which debouch into inland lakes, viz. the Barada near Zebedani, which waters the oasis of Damascus, and farther S. the Jordan, the prin- cipal riveT of Palestine. All these streams thus emanate from the great central mountain group of Syria. These mountains are divided, in the two northernmost regions of Syria, into two parallel ranges, running from N. to S., the most eastern of which is the Anti- Libanus (Arab. Jebel esh-Sherki, the eastern mountains), culminat- ing at its southern extremity in the Oreat Hermon (9383 ft.). The western and higher of the two ranges is the Lebanon (Arab. Jebel Libndn), which culminates near Beirut and Tripoli in the Jebel Makhmal (10,016 ft.), and the J)ahr el-Kodlb (10,052 ft.). Lebanon terminates towards the N. near the Nahr el-Kebir (see above), to the N. of which begins a range of hills called the Nusairlyeh Mts. after the people by whom they are inhabited. Beyond these rises the Jebel 'Akrd, the Mons Casius of the ancients, with its con-

CLIMATE. 41

spicuous summit towering above the coast. To the N. of the Otontes begins the Jaur Dagh (the Amanus of antiquity), which afterwards merges in the Cilician Taurus.

An offshoot of the Lebanon range also stretches southwards, with slight interruptions, throughout the whole of Palestine. On this broad chain, the upper part of which approaches the sea and at Mt. CaTmel sends forth a lateral branch, but which farther S. is separated from the sea by a fertile plain , lie the oldest and most famous places in Palestine, and within it are included the mountains of Naphtali, the mountains of Ephraim, and the mountains of Judah mentioned in the Bible. It is this range which prevents the Jordan from flowing towards the sea, and compels it to pursue its southern course until it loses itself in the Dead Sea, a remarkable basin which lies faT below the sea-level, The secluded character of this part of the country has exercised a very marked influence on its climate, its inhabitants, and its products, as the traveller will often have occasion to observe.

Beyond Jordan, not far from Hermon, rise the volcanic hills of TulvLl. The whole of the Hauran, which is of basaltic formation, also exhibits to this day a number of volcanic craters (comp. p. 44). Farther S. extend the mountains of Gilead, partially wooded. The mountains of Moab form an extensive table-land , separated from the desert towards the E. by a low range of hills only.

Climate. Owing to the great inequalities in the surface of the country, the climate varies greatly in different parts of Syria. The year, as a rule, consists of two seasons only, the rainy and the dry. Spring, the pleasantest time of the year, lasts from the middle of March to the middle of May. From the beginning of May to the end of October the sky is almost uninterruptedly cloudless. Thunder and rain during the wheat harvest (1 Sam. xii. 17, 18) are of very rare occurrence, but in May there are occasional thunderstorms and showers. In early summer, mists still hoveT about the mountains, but later in the season they disappear entirely, and the atmosphere is generally brilliantly clear, as is apparent from the intenser brightness of the moon and stars. Heavy dews usually fall at night, even in the height of summer, but this is not the case in the desert. The wind at this season usually blows from the N.W.; the E. wind brings drought ; while the S. wind, or Khamsin (so called from its prevailing for fifty days), which fortunately seldom lasts for moTe than two days at a time , effectually deprives the air of all moisture, brings with it an unpleasant haze, and causes headache, languor, and sleeplessness. At times it blows in violent gusts. Owing to the want of rain, nature soon loses her beauty in summer excepting in places like Damascus where there is water enough f6T artificial irrigation. The desert then exhibits a dreary waste of withered stalks and burnt up grass, the springs gradually dry \ip , and the nomadic tribes retire to the mountains. In the hot

42 CLIMATE.

season many of the natives sleep on the flat roofs of their houses, but owing to the dewfall , travellers cannot be recommended to follow their example, unless well wrapped up.

Harvest -time varies in different parts of the country; in the lower districts it is generally in the latter half of May. and in the higheT in the first half of June.

Towards the end of October clouds begin to rise, and the rainy season is sometimes ushered in by several thunderstorms. This is the 'first' or 'former' rain of the Bible (Deut. xi. 14; Joel ii. 23), which so far softens the parched soil that the husbandman can plough it. The S. and S.W. winds then bring showeTS which last one or more days, and these are generally followed by N. or E. winds, lasting for a few days, during which the weather is delight- ful. In November there is frequently a considerable proportion of fine weather , but by this time almost all vegetation has dis- appeared. December is generally stormy, January and February cold and rainy, the rain taking the form of snow among the higher mountains in January. The 'latter' rains falling in March and April promote the growth of the crops. If they are scanty, or do not fall at all at this season, the crops are much impaired or even destroyed, the flocks of the nomadic tribes find no pasture, and as there are no roads by which supplies can be brought from a distance, a famine is the inevitable result. In Syria, therefore, rain is always accept- able, though, when too violent, it sometimes causes the collapse of the mud hovels of the peasantry.

The variations of temperature in Syria are very considerable. In the interior of the country, in the desert, and in the hill country of Palestine, as well as of course among the mountains, the thermo- meter often falls below the freezing point. At Damascus (2265 ft. above the sea- level), Jerusalem (2494 ft.), and even at Aleppo (1143 ft.), snow falls almost every winter, although it does not lie except on the higher mountains. According to Dr.Barclay (Robinson's Phys. Geog., p. 272) the highest temperature at Jerusalem is 92° Fahr., the lowest 28°, the mean temperature about 62^°. These data may be held to apply to the whole of the hill country. The heat at Damascus and Aleppo , as well as in the desert , is necessarily greater, as the mountains to the N.W. keep off the cool sea-breezes. The mean temperature on the sea-board is higher than that of the interior, but the heat of summer is tempered by the sea air. "With the exception of the days when the khamsin or sirocco prevails , a cool breeze generally blows on summer evenings at Damascus, and the nights and mornings are delightful. Owing, however, to the extensive irrigation which is carried on here, colds are easily caught if proper precautions are not taken.

The climate of the Valley of the Jordan is very variable. The first small lake through which the river flows, the triangular basin of Huleh, lies 275 ft. only above the Mediterranean. A little far-

GEOLOGY. 43

ther on, the Jordan descends into a ravine 625 ft. below the sea- level , this being the altitude of the Lake of Tiberias. The whole of the district traversed by the Jordan as far as the Dead Sea (1293 ft. below the sea-level) is called in Arabic El-Ohor, i. e. the depression or cavity. The climate resembles that of Egypt, but is much more unhealthy. The inhabitants are a sickly race, and many of them are cretins. In the height of summer the heat in this valley is terrible. On 8th May Lynch's thermometer marked 110° in the shade. The harvest in the Gh6r is much earlier than in the rest of Syria, taking place at the end of April and the beginning of May.

Geology. According to the excellent maps of Lartet (Luynes, Voyage autour de la Mer Morte), the geological structure of Syria is as follows : —

(1). From both sides of the Red Sea extend masses of granite and gneiss across the S. part of the peninsula of Sinai to the 'Araba, in the vicinity of the'Dead Sea, the same formation occurring also at places on the eastern slopes to the N. of the watershed between the Dead Sea and the Bay of 'Akaba.

(2). Next to this primitive formation occurs a kind of sandstone, called by Lartet 'gres nubien' from its extensive occurrence in Nubia. This sandstone , which is often very hard and generally of a daTk red or blackish colour, also overlies the edge of the granite and gneiss of Sinai and ascends both the slopes of the 'ATaba, but farthest on the E. slope, and is thus exposed to view almost all along the lower (Moabitish) shore of the Dead Sea. On the W. slopes , both of Lebanon and Anti-Libanus , the same sandstone also occurs, forming a basis for the superincumbent limestone.

(3). Succeeding the primitive formation [and the sandstone appears the limestone , which forms the main mass of the lofty Lebanon and Hermon , and which Lartet identifies by its fossils with the 'Ne'ocomien' which occurs in the Swiss Jura and belongs to the lowest chalk formation. The limestone of this formation occupies the whole plateau of Palestine and the country to the E. of the Jordan, the peninsula of Sinai to the N. of the part occupied by the primitive rocks, and the valley of the Nile to a point far above Carnac.

(4). The nummulite limestone , which belongs to the lower tertiary formation, is of rare occurrence, appearing on Carmel, Ebal, and Gerizim only, while the tertiary sandstone, though it stretches from Lower Egypt to the vicinity of Gaza, does not extend into Syria.

(5). Th&most recent formations, on the other hand, such as the dunes of sea-sand, the alluvium of rivers , and the deposits of lakes, cover the whole of the W. margin of Syria, from the Delta of Egypt as far as the point where Lebanon approaches the coast, that is, the whole of Philistia, the plain of Sharon, and the entire valley of the Jordan from the watershed in the 'Araba as far as Hermon.

44 GEOLOGY.

The above are the fundamental rock-formations of Syria, but the following also occupies a prominent position.

(6). The basaltic rocks of the Plutonic or Volcanic formation occur extensively in Syria. From the vast alluvial tract of the desert in the centre of Arabia there begin to rise towards the N.W. those masses of basalt which form the plateau of the Tulul (p. 41) and the whole of the Hauran, as well as the Tegion to the E. of the Lake of Tiberias (Jolan), the hills of Safed to the "W. of that lake, and lastly part of the districts of Tiberias "and Nazareth. This basaltic region frequently rises into wildly riven and inaccessible mountains, furrowed by labyrinthine gullies, and many miles in diameter (Harm). Basaltic trap , however , when disintegrated, affords the richest arable land.

To recapitulate , the geological structure of Syria is as follows : In the south the primitive rocks prevail ; next occurs a layer of red sandstone ; then comes the chalky limestone which forms the mass of the country, overlaid with nummulite limestone and allu- vial soil ; lastly, in central Syria, appear the colossal erupted masses of volcanic rock.

Flora. The soil of Syria is exceedingly fertile, and in ancient times supported a much greater population than it does at the present day. Its fertility is extolled in the Talmud and by classical authors (Tacitus, v. 6), as well as in the Bible. Even the Syrian 'desert' consists, not of sand, but of excellent soil, which after the eariy rain produces a rich crop of grasses and flowering herbs, affording the most luxuriant pasture. Lebanon also, though at the present day for the most part barren, was to a great extent under cultivation in ancient times, and still possesses fertile soil which would well repay the industry of the husbandman. A proof of this is afforded by the beautiful cultivated terraces of Phoenician origin, chiefly on the W. side of the mountain. In many of the valleys, too , traces of similar terraces , of the watchmen's houses mentioned in the Bible, and of the enclosures of ancient gardens, are still observable in the midst of what is now a complete wilderness.

In accordance with Boissier's Flora Orientalis , we may distin- guish the following different regions of Syrian vegetation.

(1). The whole of the coast-district belongs to the region of the Mediterranean Flora , which extends around the basin of that sea, reaching inland as far as the lower hill-country. Of this flora the most characteristic plants are numerous evergreen shrubs with narrow, leathery leaves, and short-lived spring flowers. The vegetation of the coasts of Syria and Palestine is therefore similar to that of Spain , Algeria and Sicily, with some few modifications, especially towards the S. , in the direction of Egypt. The squill, tulip, and anemone, the annual grasses, the shrubs of oleander and myrtle , the pine , and the olive clearly distinguish this flora as a member of the great Mediterranean family , while the Melia

FLORA. 45

Azederach which abounds on the coast of Phoenicia, and the Ficus Sycomorus near Beirut mark the transition to a warmer region.

The region of this Mediterranean flora is a somewhat narrow one ; for , as soon as the coast is quitted and the higher ground of the interior approached, the character of the vegetation changes.

(2). This next region is that of the Oriental Vegetation of the Steppes. The W. limit of this region is formed by drawing a line from the pass of Lebanon, towards the E. of Beirut, to the crest of the hills of Judah in the S. of Palestine. Beyond this line is the domain of the Oriental Flora. One of its characteristics is a great variety of species , but the underwood is of a dry and thorny description, and the growth of trees very stunted. Numerous small, grey, prickly bushes of Poterium ; the grey, aromatic Eremostachys ; brilliant, but small and rapidly withering spring plants ; in summer the predominating Cousinia , a peculiar kind of thistle which flou- rishes at a time when every green leaf is burnt up ; on the hills scanty groups of oaks with prickly leaves, pistachios, etc. ; here and there a plantation of conifers (cedar, juniper, cypress, Pinus Brutid) ; on the mountain-tops the peculiar spiny dwarf Astragalus and Acantholimon — such are the most frequently recurring plants of the Oriental family. Others of a much handsomer kind are also met with, but these are exceptions.

(3). Subtropical Flora of the Ghor. In consequence of its extraordinary depression, the valley of the Jordan has a hot and winterless climate , which gives rise to a vegetation of very remarkable character , somewhat resembling that of Nubia on the verge of the tropics. Here occurs the 'Oshr (Asclepias procera), a plant characteristic of the southern Sahara , the umbrella-shaped Acacia Seyal , the blood-red parasitic Loranthus , the Trichodesma Africana , the Forskahlea , the Aerua Javanica, the Boerhavia verticillata, the Daemia cordata, the Aristida ; then, near Engedi, the very curious Moringa aptera, and lastly, on Lake Huleh, the genuine African Papyrus Antiquorum. Altogether these species present a picture of the vegetation of Abyssinia or Nubia, investing the subtropical oasis of the Ghor with great interest.

Crops. In ancient times Solomon was able to send Hiram twenty thousand measures of wheat (about 1165 quarters) and twenty mea- sures of oil (1 Kings v. 11). To this day the so-called Nukra, the great plain of the HauTan , is the granary of N. Arabia. The chief markets for the] export of wheat are Yafa , Acre , and Beirut. From wheat is made the burghul, the ordinary food of the Syrian peasant, a kind of dough boiled with leaven and dried in the sun. The poorer classes make bread of barley, but this grain is generally given to the cattle. Oats are not cultivated in Syria, though wild varieties, unfit for use, are frequently found. Besides wheat and barley, there are crops of dohan wheat (Holcus sorghum) , millet, maize , beans , peas , and lentils. Aniseed, cumin, coriander, and

46 FLORA.

fennel are grown around Damascus. Liquorice is cultivated chiefly in N. Syria , -whence about 130 tons are exported annually, and rose-leaves also form an article of commerce.

The traveller nowhere sees fields of turnip, beet, mangold wurzel, or the English fodder grasses, which might all be cultivated to ad- vantage. On the other hand the sweet potato and yam may be met with, together with other hot country vegetables, which with the banana, orange, shaddock, and lime give a tropical aspect to the gardens of the warmer localities.

Damascus carries on a very brisk trade in apricots (mishmish), preserved by exposure to the sun, of which between 3000 and 4000 tonsare exported annually. Thekernels, of which400 to500tonsare sent into the market , form a separate article. Around Damascus are grown annually about 125 tons of fine raisins, and 2000 to 2500 tons of an inferior quality. Wine and brandy are prepared from raisins in Syria, but experiments lately made there, particularly in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem , have proved that good wine can be prepared in the more cleanly European manner from fresh grapes. The Vino d'Oro of Lebanon enjoys a high reputation.

Nuts (jdz) come principally from Central Syria, which yields a crop of about 600 tons yearly , while pistachios (fustuk) are chiefly cultivated in N. Syria (Aleppo), whence 4 — 500 tons are exported. Olives (zetun) are another staple product of Syria , but they are chiefly used for home consumption and for the manufacture of soap (see below). The environs of Damascus yield an annual crop of about 150 tons of green olives, and 200 tons of the inferior black kind. The fruit is often eaten raw. The oil expressed from them is, as a rule, carelessly prepared, and has an unpleasant taste. The cultivation of the olive is steadily increasing in Syria, especially on the coast neaT Tripoli and Saida. About 7500 tons of oil are produced annually. Oil is also obtained from the sesame, which is cultivated in the districts of Syria to the N. of Damascus , as also at Jezreel. In Central Syria one of the principal crops is alizari, or madder, the root of which is used as a dye, and is exported to the extent of about 180 tons annually.

Syria is also famous for its tobacco (comp. p. 33). In 1872 Lebanon yielded about 1250 tons, four-fifths of which were exported.

In the desert near Damascus , and on Jebel 'Ajlun and in the Belka to the E. of Jordan, kali or saltwort (comp. p. 284) is grown extensively. The potass prepared from it averages 620 tons annually, and is chiefly used in the soap-works of the country. About 2500 tons of soap are consumed annually in Syria, princi- pally in the large towns.

An important article of commerce in Northern Syria are the gall1 apples produced by the oaks there ; they are used in dyeing, and are largely exported to Europe. The bark of the pomegranate tree is in great request foT tanning purposes. On the slopes of Anti-

FLORA. 47

Libaims , to the N. of Damascus , grows the sumach, which yields another dyeing material, but in small quantities only.

Cotton was cultivated and manufactured as far back as the time of the Israelites , and the Syrian cotton fabrics of the middle ages were celebrated, but the trade has suffered greatly from foreign competition. A coarse, but very durable kind of cotton stuff is still woven in extremely primitive looms by the natives, but most of it is used in the country itself. In 1869 the quantity of raw cotton exported amounted to 2100 tons , but Mersina, beyond the confines of Syria, is now the principal seat of the cotton trade.

Silk-culture is another considerable source of profit, the tree most frequently planted for the food of the worms being the mulberry-tree with white fruit (Morua alba) , which was first in- troduced into Syria in the time of the Emperor Justinian (6th cent.). The first silkworms' eggs were brought from Central Asia, and the culture rapidly found favour in the environs of Beirut and Tyre. The silk-culture of Syria is frequently mentioned in the history of the Crusades. Throughout Lebanon the mulberry-tree occupies the most important place in every garden. It requires careful manuring and irrigation, and the soil round it has to be kept in a loosened condition. The feeding of the worms with the mulberry leaves also requires great care. In 1872 the fresh cocoons produced amounted to 2500 tons. About the year 1862 eggs were imported fresh from Japan, as the worms were affected with an epidemic, but the eggs of the Syrian silkworm have recently come into great request in the European market , and the silkworm breeders have also begun to produceraw silk for exportation. As in thecase of cotton, the native silk manufacture has greatly fallen off since ancient times, the fabrics being now exclusively disposed of in the home market. They are woven in rude, old-fashioned looms at Beirut, Damascus, in several parts of Lebanon, at Antioch, and Aleppo.

Besides the above-mentioned vegetable products there are several others which only occur sporadically, or are used exclusively for native consumption. One of these is flax, another is mustard. Sugar-cane was formerly cultivated near Jericho ; for several centuries it has thriven in the neighbourhood of Tripoli and Antioch ; and it has of late been planted near Acre and Yafa. The date-palm thrives in the southern sea-coast districts of Palestine only , but occasionally grows wild and fruitless in the gorges on the E. coast of the Dead Sea, and here and there in the interior. The banana, though not a native, ripens in Southern Syria.

Trees. The largest of the trees of Syria is the noble cedar (comp. p. 504), which , as well as the cypress , has now become Tare. The Aleppo pine, however , is still very common on the W. slopes of Lebanon. In the lower part of the Jordan valley the tamarisk and the poplar willow occur. The "Valonia oak flourishes in the N. and E. of Palestine , and the evergreen oak frequently occurs to the S.

48 FLORA.

of Carmel. The terebinth is another tree of common occurrence. The white or silver poplar is planted chiefly in the neighbourhood of Damascus, for the sake of its timber for building purposes. The carob (^Ceratonia siliqua ; Arab, kharrub ; Luke xv. 16) is by far the handsomest tree of Syria. Its massive green foliage is unmatched, always affording an agreeable shade, and its fruit, the St. John's bread, is a staple article of food with the lower orders. The disagree- able smell of the fermenting pods is a familiar one to the traveller as he rides by a troop of laden camels. It is imported largely into England, and forms an ingredient in various cattle-foods. Its bark-, is used for tanning, and a sherbet is made with the pulp of the fruit. — Various English trees give a northern aspect to the hilly districts. Such are, besides many oaks, the maple, walnut, juniper, alder, willow, ash, elder, plane, arbutus, and hawthorn. The dog-Tose, cotoneaster, bramble, and sweet bay also occur.

Syria possesses a great variety of fruit-trees. Vines flourish in every part of the country. They are not generally trained on poles, but either grow on the ground, or on trellises, or against trees. The grapes are excellent. The fig-tree is also very common ; it thrives admirably , even on stony soil , and yields fruit throughout a con- siderable part of the year. The fruit , either fresh or dried, forms an important article of food. The wild fig-tree occurs sporadically. In the height of summer the cactus , which in the warmer districts forms excellent and formidable hedges , yields its sweet , but somewhat mawkish prickly pear with its numerous seeds. Pear and apple trees are Tare , and the pomegranates of Syria are inferior in flavour to those of Egypt and Bagdad. Yafa is famed for its oranges, which are exported in great quantities. Citrons , peaches , and almonds are also frequently seen. The famous Styrax of the ancients is a common bush, especially on Carmel and Tabor, but the gum is not collected from it.

The cucumbers of Syria are much prized. The long green ones with notched skins are the juiciest. They aTe eaten raw by the na- tives without any dressing whatever. The lettuce and other salads, as purslane and endive , are eaten in the same simple manner. Onions form another article of food ; they thrive best in the sandy soil about Ascalon. Several varieties of melon, especially the water- melon, gourd, and pumpkin, some of them attaining a great size, are common. The other vegetables of the country are cauliflowers, the egg-plant (Melongena badinjan), and the bamieh (Hibiscus escu- lentus). Artichokes and asparagus grow wild , and the delicious truffle is found in the desert. Potatoes are planted in various places, as at Yabriid, two days' journey to the N. of Damascus, and at Jerusalem. The caper plant (Capparis spinosa) abounds in all hot parts of Syria, and is extensively used. The date is the only palm, and does not ripen its fruit. In the Jordan valley it is now probably all but extinct, but bushy tufts of it are to be seen at Haifa,

FAUNA. 49

Tiberias, etc., being probably seedling plants from stones dropped by travellers.

Fauna. In the animal as well as in the vegetable kingdom of Syria very marked differences are observable between the moun- tainous and the low-lying districts, and between one season and another. We shall only enumerate some of the leading representa- tives of each class.

Mammalia. (1). Domestic Animals. Foremost in importance is the sheep, flocks of sheep having from very ancient times formed an important item of property. The desert and the mountainous parts of the country suffice for the sustenance of this hardy animal, and at the present day, as in ancient times, the region of theBelka, to the E. of Jordan , is the most favourable for its support. The nomadic tribes of the desert also possess numerous sheep. The commonest species is the fat-tailed. Mutton is now almost the only meat eaten in Syria. About 150,000 lambs' skins are annually sold in the markets of the country, but a considerable number of these are imported from Kurdistan , while the sinews are exported to Europe for the manufacture of violin and other strings. Sheeps' milk is highly prized , and justly so. Damascus exports about 650 tons of wool annually. That of N. Syria is the finest , and Aleppo is the most famous of the wool-markets. In 1872 Aleppo alone yielded 500 tons of wool , while a still greater quantity passed through the country from the east, besides fine goats' wool.

Goats are chiefly kept for the sake of their milk, but their flesh is eaten by the poorer classes. Almost every village in Syria possesses its flocks of goats. — The oxen of Syria are small and ill- looking. In the valley of the Jordan the Indian buffalo, which is so common in Egypt, is much used for agricultural purposes. In Syria the ox is generally used for ploughing only , and is seldom slaughtered, except in Lebanon , whence the exportation of ox- hides, via Beirut, is not inconsiderable.

The camel (p. 14) is seldom used except by the nomadic tribes in the desert. It is employed for riding, carrying burdens, and even for ploughing. The hair or wool is woven into a coarse kind of cloth. The peasantry generally have few camels of their own, but they often borrow them from the Beduins , especially at the season for tilling the soil. The dung of all these animals, from the sheep to the camel, is used in many parts of Syria as fuel.

Horses (pp. 14, 19) afford the usual means of locomotion throughout Syria. Down to the time of the kings, the Israelites possessed few horses. The finest Arabian horses are those of the 'Aenezeh Beduins (p. 84), who rarely sell them unless compelled. These horses are fed with barley and chaff.

The Oriental donkey is more nearly allied to the wild ass, and is much more active , than his European congener. Donkeys are frequently seen in Syria, though not so commonly as in Egypt. The

Palestine. A

50 FAUNA.

most prized are those of the large white variety which is bred by the Arabs of the Syrian desert. A species of wild ass is still to be met with in E. Syria.

(2). Wild Animals. A connecting link between the domestic and the wild animals is formed in Syria by the dog and the cat. Dogs are seldom or never domesticated in the East as with us, being regarded by the Muslims as unclean. Each town and village is therefore infested with as many masterless dogs as its refuse can support. These scavengers of the East , as they are often called, bark lustily at strangers, but never bite unless provoked. Hydrophobia is unknown in the East. Unowned dogs will sometimes follow caravans if they are fed , in which case they will generally make themselves useful by their watchfulness at night. While regarding them as unclean, the natives treat these dogs humanely, and resent their being roughly dealt with. It is hardly possible to keep a dog in the house in the East, as the street-dogs will infallibly worry him if they have an opportunity.

Next to the dog must be mentioned the jackal (Arab, wawi), the howling and whimpering of which are often heard at night , par- ticularly a little after sunset. They show a preference for ruins and often rove about in packs. When foxes are spoken of in the Bible, it is probable that jackals are included under that name, and in some cases they alone are meant (Judges xv. 4). There are two species of the fox. In Lebanon the wolf (dtb) also is not uncommon. The hyena sometimes ventures close to the gates of Jerusalem, but it is not an animal of which human beings need be afraid.

The domestic cat of the East is rarely quite tame. The beautiful, long-haired Angora cat is sometimes seen in the houses. There are also several kinds of wild cats, but they are seldom met with. Of the larger feline species the leopard (nimr) still occurs, but is now almost exterminated ; and the same may be said of the hunting-cat or hunting leopard , which is now rarely trained for the chase, as it formerly was. The lion, which is so often mentioned in the Bible, has long been extinct.

The bear is another wild beast which is sometimes encountered on Lebanon ; his usual food is fruit. The badger and the hedgehog, the latter both of the European and another species, are of common occurrence.

There are several varieties of bats in Syria, chiefly to be found in the numerous caverns of the limestone rocks. There are no apes, but rodentia abound , from the squirrel to the blind mouse (Arab. khlund), which is often confounded with the mole, an animal quite unknown in Syria. House rats and rats of the desert are very numerous. There are also marmots, the graceful jumping mouse of the southern desert , the prickly mouse, the porcupine, and four kinds of hares. Rabbits are unknown in Palestine, but the conies mentioned in the Bible (Hyra.v Syriacus), the wabr of the Arabs

FAUNA. 51

{daman, ashkoko, or shaphan), inhabit the clefts of the 'stony rocks' in the region between the Dead Sea and Mt. Sinai (comp. p. 287).

Of the cloven-footed animals the pig is the next in importance. The wild boar occurs throughout the whole of Syria , but domestic swine are never met with except in monastery farms. The existence of herds of swine in ancient times (Matth. viii. 30 — 32 ; Luke xv. 15) is probably to be attributed to Greek influence. Pork, which even many of the native Christians abhor , is very apt to disagree in summer, but may safely be eaten in winter.

Of the ruminants Syria possesses numerous examples. The gazelle is common, both in the plains and among the mountains. In E. Syria it is hunted by the peasantry, by whom, as in Central Africa , it is driven into large enclosures , and there captured or slain. These graceful animals are very apt to die when in captivity ; but the young are frequently brought to the towns alive for sale by Beduins and peasants. The mountain goat of Sinai is frequently seen in the mountain gorges around the Dead Sea.

Birds. The domestic hen is very common throughout Syria, but is generally of small size. Ducks are only to be found in a wild state, being very numerous in the plain of the Jordan. On all the hills the Caccabis saxatilis, a large and beautiful kind of partridge, is very common; and near the Dead Sea is found the small , grey desert-fowl ( Ammoperdix heyi). Quails occur in all the corn-fields of the plains. Wild pigeons are especially numerous in Lebanon, but these birds are only found in a tame condition in places where dovecots are built for them. The plains of Jezreel and some other localities are frequented by large flocks of storks, cranes, and becassins. Among the birds of prey the eagle and the vulture are the most conspicuous, the former haunting the wildernesses about the Dead Sea and on the Litany. There are several kinds of ravens in Palestine. Singing- birds, too, are tolerably well represented, the most notable being the thrush-like nightingale of Palestine (Arab, bulbul). About the be- ginning and end of winter are seen vast flights of birds of passage, on their way to Egypt and more southern climates, or on their return ; among these is the cuckoo, whose note is often heard in spring.

Reptiles. The traveller will frequently have opportunities of observing the 'creeping things' of Syria. In his apartment at night he will often hear the shrill cry of the harmless little gecko. In the southern coast districts the common chameleon is not unfrequently seen. Among the mountains occurs the dark-coloured khardon of the Arabs, with its prickly tail and back. The crocodile appears to be extinct in Palestine, if indeed it ever existed (comp. p. 352). Snakes abound, many of them being poisonous , but their bite is seldom or never attended with a fatal result. The land tortoise is common ; the small tailed water-tortoise is less frequent.

Fish. The Jordan and the Lake of Tiberias abound in fish, which ascend or descend the streams according to the season.

4*

52 FORMER POPULATION, ETC.

Different varieties are found in almost all the perennial waters of Palestine. Net fishing in the sea is extensively carried on. — The sponge-fishery on the Syrian coast to the N. of Beirut is a pro- ductive branch of industry, which employs a large number of hands, but the results are very fluctuating. In 1872 the yield was about 14 tons of sponge, valued at 560,000 fr.

Insects. In every part of Syria insects of every kind are abundant. Those most hostile to the repose of the traveller are bugs , lice , and fleas , the last being the most annoying (p. 21).. Mosquitoes are not particularly virulent in Palestine ; nor is much danger to be apprehended from the wasps and formidable looking hornets , which in the time of Joshua sometimes entered the lists in the cause of the Israelites (Josh. xxiv. 12, etc.). To this day their cousins the bees are extremely useful. The nests of these last are still often found , as in ancient times , in clefts of the rocks , while numerous hives of tame bees , generally in the form of cylindrical vessels of earthenware, are seen in ancient Galilee. Honey is much used in the East for sweetening dishes ; a favourite substitute is the Arabian dibs, a syrup prepared by boiling down grapes, figs, or other fruit, and often eaten with bread.

Grasshoppers, or locusts, which often entirely devour the crops, are a terror to the husbandman. They come in dense flights from Central Arabia , suddenly alight on the fields , and speedily strip them of every vestige of green , not even sparing trees and shrubs. The 'grasshoppers innumerable' were one of the well known plagues of antiquity (Joel i. 4; ii. 25; Exodus x. 12 — 19, etc.). The Beduins dry these insects , collect them in sacks , mixing them with salt, and eat them either raw or stewed (Levit. xi. 22; Matt. iii. 4). Beetles and butterflies will interest the entomologist, but need not be specially mentioned here. — Scorpions are to be found under almost every stone , and frequently in the houses also. TheiT sting is very painful, but never fatal (p. 21).

Lastly we may mention the edible land snail and the other land and fresh-water snails, of which there are many pretty varieties, and also the murex, or purple shell-fish, found on the sea-coast near Tyre (p. 353).

III. Population, Divisions, and Names of Syria at different periods.

I. The aboriginal inhabitants of the land of Canaan are de- scribed in the Bible as a race of giants, consisting of the Anakims (Josh. xi. 21, 22), the Rephaims (Gen. xiv. 5), a name afterwards applied to the whole of the primeval peoples, and lastly the Emims, the Horims, the Suzites or Zamzummims, and the Avims (Deut. ii. 10 — 23). Traces of this population continued to exist down to the time of the kings (2 Sam. xxi. 16 — 22).

FORMER POPULATION, ETC. 53

II. (a). On the immigration of the Israelites they found the land occupied by the Canaanites. The name Kuna'an , originally applied to the plain in the S.W. of Syria, was gradually extended to the whole country on this side Jordan. The country to the E. of Jordan was called Gilead. in the wider sense of the word. The name of Canaanites is sometimes used to signify ethnographically a specific lace (e. g. Exod. iii. 8) , but generally to describe collectively the peoples descended from Canaan (Gen. x. 15 — 19). According to verse 6 of the chapter last named, among other passages, the •Canaanites were descendants of Ham ; and if this was the case , we must assume that a change of language took place, as they appear to have spoken a language allied to Hebrew (Semitic). The Canaa- nitish peoples, who were superior to the Israelites in civilisation, formed a number of small states governed by kings. The following races are mentioned in the Bible : (1) The Amorites , the mightiest section of the Canaanites , who dwelt in the S. part of Canaan and possessed two kingdoms beyond Jordan, viz. that of Sihon between Anion and Jabbok (Wady Mojib and Nahr ez-Zerka), and that of Og in Bashan, in the modern Hauran; (2) The Perizzites, in the country which was afterwards called Samaria ; (3) The Hittites, in the central and southern parts of the country ; (4) The Hivites in Shechem(Nabulus) and further to theN. ; (5) The Jebusites, around Jebus or Jerusalem ; (6) The Girgashites or Gerisites , probably in the centre of the country. — According to the Biblical account, the Phoenicians also belonged to the Canaanites (comp. p. 432), and they themselves claim descent from that race.

(b). The Semitic tribes akin to the Hebrews were quite distinct from the Canaanitish peoples. They consisted of: (1) The Edomites. who occupied the region of the 'Araba (p. 297) as far as the bay of 'Akaba (Elath) , and the mountains of Seir on both sides of the, 'ATaba; (2) The Moabites, at the S. E. end of the Dead Sea; (3) The Ammonites , whose territory originally lay between Arnon and Jabbok, but who were driven farther to the E. by the Amorites. — Among the descendants of Esau there are also mentioned in the Bible the Amalekites, a wandering tribe, who pitched their tents in the desert of Et-Tih to the S. of Palestine. The Amalekites and the Midianites, the latter dwelling towards the S. E. in the direction of Arabia, were probably nomadic Arabs, whose predatory incursions are frequently mentioned. The vast Syrian steppe has probably been inhabited from time immemorial by wandering Beduin tribes, some of whom from time to time have detached themselves from their tribe and settled down at a particular spot. If we assume that the whole of the Semites were originally nomads of this kind , the transition to a settled life in the case of the Aramaeans (Syrians, comp. p. 82) must have taken place at a very early period.

(c). The Aramaeans had founded political communities in Syria at a very remote era. The kingdoms of Aram Dammesek (Damascus)

54 FORMER DIVISIONS, ETC.

and Aram Zoba (the latter probably situated in the Beka'a), both contiguous to the Israelites , are mentioned in the Bible. There were also Aramaeans in Lebanon , and smaller Aramaic states on Hermon, such as that of Abel Maachah, while important kingdoms of this race lay in Mesopotamia.

III. It is no less difficult to lay down with any precision the boundaries of the different Israelitish tribes than those of the above mentioned sections of the Canaanitish population ; and the difficulty is increased by the fact that these boundaries were fre- quently altered , and that several of the tribes became merged in others. Thus the villages of the tribe of Simeon , which occupied the southernmost part of Palestine , afterwards belonged to Judah,. while the inhabitants of towns of Dan, driven away from their original habitations to the N.AV. of Judah , sought a new dwelling in the northern extremity of the country.

The separate kingdom of Judah consisted of the tribe of that name and that of Benjamin , which dwelt to the N.E. of the tribe of Judah. Farther to the N. lay the territory of the powerful tribe of Ephraim, to the N."\V. of which was that of Half Manasseh, while Issachar occupied the plain of Jezreel and a considerable district on the bank of the Jordan. Still farther N. lay the territory of Zebulon and Naphtali, and on the coast that of Asher. The northern kingdom (that of Israel) also embraced the possessions of the Israelites beyond Jordan. The Moabites , however, sometimes held possession of the territory of Reuben , which lay to the N. of their own, and that of Gad still farther N., while the Half Tribe of Manasseh in Bashan had great difficulty in defending themselves against the incursions of their neighbours.

After the period of the captivity the ancient differences between the tribes disappeared. A single state (that of Judaea) , but of fluctuating extent, continued to exist in the southern part of the country only , frequently encroached upon , however , by the Idumaeans , or Edomites , from the S. The central districts were colonised by Cuthaeans , from whom , and also from the remains of the earlier population, the Samaritans were descended.

AfteT the time of Alexander the Great even Greek colonies were founded in Palestine, such as Ptolema'is (Acre), Pella, and Gerasa; while the Nabataeans, an Arabian tribe, supplanted the Midianites and Edomites in the S. E. of Palestine. As early as B. C. 300 the Nabataeans weTe settled at Petra. They gradually conquered the territory of Moab and Ammon, and even penetrated farther north. The high degree of culture to which they had attained is much extolled by Arabian authors.

IV. In the time of Christ the whole ofN. Syria formed a Roman province under the name oiSyria or Phoenice, and Josephus informs us that Palestine was divided into four tetrarchates, or provinces. The country E. of Jordan was known as Peraea (the country beyond)

FORMER NAMES, ETC. 55

in the wider sense, but Peraea proper was the small district extending from the river Anion (M6jib) to the Zerka, and now called Belka. To the N. of Persea lay the district of Decapolis , or the 'ten cities' (Matth. iv. 25, etc.), with its capital Scythopolis to the W. of Jordan (the modern Beisan) , a region extending as far as the river Hieromax (Yarmuk). Farther to the N., bordering on the territory of Damascus, were situated — (1) Oaulanitis, the modern Jolan, extending beyond the Lake of Tiberias and along the Jordan as far as Hermon ; (2) Basanitis (Bashan) , farther to the E. , nearly corresponding with the modern Nukra; (3) Trachonitis, to the N. of the last, the modern Leja; (4) Auranilis, the mountainous district of the Hauran ; (5) lturaea , the exact position of which is a matter of controversy , but which perhaps corresponded with the modern Jedur (comp. p. 387).

The country to the W. of Jordan consisted of — (1) Judaea, the most southern province , including Idumsea ; (2) Samaria , which extended to the N. of Shechem (Nabulus) as far as the N. margin of the plain ; (3) Galilee, a region fartherN. (originally gel'il haggoyim, or district of the heathens , a name afterwards extended to a larger district; Matth. iv. 15), consisting of Lower (S.) and Upper (X.) Galilee. The Galilaeans were a despised race, and their language (Aramaic) was distinct from the Jewish. The name of Palestine, which was properly applied to the Philistian plain on the coast only , is used by Greek and Roman authors about the beginning of our era to signify the whole of the country on this side Jordan. Under the later Roman empire Palestine was divided into four provinces : — (1) Palaestina I., Arab. Filistin , which included the greater part of Judah and Samaria, and had Caesarea for its capital. ( 2) Palaestina II. , Arab. Vrdun (Jordan), Galilee, and Gilead in the narrower sense, Scythopolis being the capital. (3) Palaestina 111. , Arab. Jibdlod Sherat, including the ancient kingdom of the Naba- taeans in the south of the country , and the region of Aila towards the east as far as the Arnon, with Petra as its capital. (4) The province of Arabia, to the north-east of Palaestina III., embraced the whole Tegion of the Hauran, the north part of which had for- merly belonged to the province of Damascus (Phcenice ad Liba- num), and had Bostra as its capital.

V. The political constitution of the Kingdom of Jerusalem was precisely similar to that of the western feudal states. The most prominent crown-vassals were the Prince of Antioch , the Counts of Edessa and Tripoli , the Prince of Tiberias , the Count of Joppa and Ascalon, and the Lord of Montroyal (the Kerak of ancient Moah).

VI. Syria is called Esh-Shdm by the Arabs, under which name they include Palestine (Filistin). The name signifies the land situated to the 'left', as distinguished from El-Yemen, or S. Arabia, the land situated to the 'right'. The Turkish name for Syria is Sur- istan. The Turks divided the country into five pashalics : Aleppo,

56 HISTORY.

Tripoli . Damascus , Saida (afterwards Acre) , and Palestine , but this division has been much modified in the course of centuries. Until recently Syria contained two principal provinces (wilayet) only, with Damascus and Aleppo as their capitals respectively ; but Je- rusalem also has lately been constituted the seat of a wdly, or cen- tral governor, directly dependent on the Porte. This change was made with a view to keep in check the turbulent tribes beyond Jordan.

The ancient statistics we possess refer to Palestine only. Accord- ing to Numbers, i. 46, the men capable of bearing arms numbered 603,550 , and according to Numbers, xxvi. 51 , the number was 601,730. The Israelites, therefore, at the time they immigrated into Palestine , must have consisted of a population of 2| million souls at least , not including the tribe of Levi. According to 2 Sam. xxiv. 9, the men capable of bearing arms in the time of David numbered 1,300,000, which would give a total population of over five millions.

Palestine covered an area of about 10,500 sq. M. , or less than modern Belgium (11,363 sq. M.). While in the well-peopled mountainous country of Switzerland the average population is about 200 persons to each square mile, that of Palestine , notwithstanding its numerous 'waste places', according to the first of these two estimates must have been 250 , or according to the second 500 per square mile. Josephus probably exaggerates greatly in estimating the population of Galilee alone at 5 millions. In accordance with the statistics mentioned at p. 85 the area of ancient Palestine is now occupied by about 650,000 souls. Assuming that the ancient population was four times greater, the highest probable number would be 2^ millions , or considerably in excess of Switzerland.

IV. History of Palestine and Syria.

Chronological Survey.

With regard to the most ancient history of the country we possess an admirable fund of instruction in the Bible , while we derive additional information from the statements of Jewish authors, contemporaneous Egyptian and Assyrian records, and from the later accounts of the Greeks and Romans.

I. From a district on the Upper Tigris, at a period now far beyond our ken . emigrated a tribe which thenceforward spent a nomadic life in Mesopotamia. While here, a branch separated from it and proceeded towards the S.W., settling first in Harran, whence according to the Scriptural account Abraham migrated with his family to Canaan. From that time onwards this tribe received the name of Hebmws. To this period belongs the campaign of King Chedorlaomer of Elam and his allies, described in Gen. xiv, which chapter affords us a glimpse of the conquests made by the dwellers

HISTORY. 57

in the valley of the Euphrates . and throws most valuable light on the obscurity of early Syrian history. At that period but few towns existed in Palestine, tradition recording the names of Shechem, Hebron , Salem , and a few others only. The Hebrews of that age, being a nomadic shepherd population, were probably very similar in their customs and mode of life to the Beduins of the present day. According to their own traditions they considered themselves akin to the various peoples who in modern times are described as Se- mitic ; but the position which this race occupied with regard to the Hamites (chiefly Egyptians) and to the Japhethites in point of pedigree and language is still a matter of much controversy. The Hebrews appear at a very early period to have formed a purer con- ception of the Supreme Being than their neighbours. Their peculiar religious views were closely connected with that strong feeling of cohesion and nationality to which they owed their superiority over the neighbouring and kindred tribes of Edom to the S. , Moab to the S.E. , and Ammon to the E. — Although aware that the cognate Arabs boasted of a somewhat longer pedigree, they regarded them as an illegitimate offshoot of their race, Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arabs , having been the offspring of the bondwoman. Upon the right of proprietorship which Abraham established in the land of Canaan , and particularly on the early purchase of the cave of Machpelah (Gen. xxiii) , his descendants afterwards founded their claim to the Promised Land. In the interval, however, between the time of Jacob and the Exodus, the small tribe was compelled by famine to exchange the region of S. Palestine for that of Goshen in N. Egypt. Migrations of this kind still take place among the nomadic tribes of these countries. During their sojourn of 430 years in Egypt the Israelites had grown into a great people ; and in conse- quence of the oppressive treatment they received at the hands of the Pharaohs they at length left the country under the leadership of Moses. II. With the Exodus and the subsequent delivery of the Law from Mt. Sinai begins the second and somewhat less obscure period of the history of the Israelites. The Law which Moses promulgated to his people, though far from voluminous, sufficed to elevate the Israelites above the condition in which they had hitherto been placed, and to lay the foundation of a political constitution . That constitution was a theocracy. The people in consequence separated themselves from all others , acknowledging Jehovah as their sole God and Protector, and at the same time regarding him as Lord also of all other nations. Thenceforward the principle of theocracy, although frequently violated by a relapse into idolatry, formed the great characteristic feature in the religion of the Israelites.

After the death of Moses Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, which at that time was divided among a number of small nations and tribes (comp. p. 53). Having been defeated by the Canaanites At Hormah on the frontier of the country , the Israelites continued

58 HISTORY.

theii nomadic life for another generation in the districts to the E. of Jordan. Here they defeated the leaders of the Amorites, and subjugated Gilead and Bashan, the modern Belka, as far as Hainan. The tribe of Reuben to the S. and that of Gad to the N., as well as the half-tribe of Manasseh, retained possession of the conquered country, somewhat contrary to the original design of their leaders, as Canaan, the land of which the Israelites were to obtain posses- sion, lay entirely to the W. of Jordan. These tribes, however, as- sisted in the conquest of the country, and therefore crossed the Jor- dan with their kinsfolk. The remarkable conquest of Jericho was the first achievement on this side of Jordan ; thereafter the southern Canaanites were subdued and partly exterminated, and the chief- tains of the northern Canaanites. particularly the Hazorites, were next defeated on the Lake of Merom. As these small Canaanitish states had been at variance with each other, so also dissensions sprang up among the Israelites after Joshua's death from want of a leader, in consequence of which each tribe was ultimately left to take possession for itself of the land assigned to it. Severely as the Canaanites had been dealt with, many of them still remained in the country, either in a state of servitude to the Israelites, or in alliance with them. The southern part of the country was allotted to the tribe of Judah, the most zealous opponent of the Canaanites, and adjoining it were located Simeon to the S. and Benjamin to the N. ("With regard to the partition of the country, see p. 53.) To the sacerdotal tribe of Levi were awarded dwellings throughout the whole of the land of Canaan. Three towns of refuge foT homicides were moreover selected on the chain of hills on this side Jordan, and three beyond Jordan. The dominions of the Israelites now ex- tended 'from Dan' (in the K., at the foot of Hermon) 'to Beersheba' (in the S., towards the desert).

III. A third, but far less prosperous, period in the history of Israel was that of the Judges. As soon as the impression produced upon the people by the Exodus and its attendant miracles began to fade, they speedily suffered themselves to be seduced by the example of the nations they had conquered, and the majority of them there- fore relapsed repeatedly into idolatry. The worship of Baal (god of the sun), and of Astarte (goddess of the moon), whose rites were of a most licentious character, were prevalent in Syria, while it was customary to sacrifice children to the idol Moloch. The so-called worship of high places , which had prevailed among the Hebrews at an earlier period, is also mentioned by subsequent historians as having been of an idolatrous nature. The connection between the different tribes of the Israelites became gradually slighter, although the national sanctuary of the Ark still existed at Shiloh ; and in some instances feuds arose among them, as in the case of the bloody struggle of the other tribes with Benjamin . Under these circum- stances it was natural that the people of Israel should be frequently

HISTORY. 59

molested and oppressed by their neighbours. According to Egyptian accounts, Syria was at this period more or less under the suzerainty of the Pharaohs ; but if this was the case , the various tribes and their princes still had abundant liberty of action. Their history affords us a glimpse of a wild and barbarous period of constant feuds, when the law of might was alone recognised. Occasionally the Israelites recovered in some degree from this deplorable condi- tion, as when several of the tribes would band themselves together under one of their Judges and succeed for a time in shaking off the yoke of foreigners. Thus, for example, they were delivered by Othniel from the eight years' supremacy of the King of Mesopotamia. After this they groaned under the yoke of the Moabites for eighteen years, until Ehud slew the king of their oppressors and drove them back beyond Jordan. Jabin, the king of Razor in N. Palestine, then ruled over several of the tribes of Israel for a period of twenty years, but their rising under their female judge, Deborah, and Barak, the Naphtalite, was crowned with success. Another source of disquiet to the country was the predatory attacks of the Midianites from the- east. During this period the Israelites were frequently compelled to seek refuge in caverns and mountain ravines, but from time to time their condition was ameliorated under the leadership of some powerful and energetic ruler, such as Gideon and Jephthah.

Again, however, the Israelites fell under the yoke of the Am- monites and the Philistines. The former were defeated by Jeph- thah (Judges xi.) ; but the latter, probably reinforced by allies from without (see p. 312), soon became very formidable to the tribes of Israel in the southern regions of the country.

The attacks of the Philistines , however , were really a source of benefit to the Israelites, as they were thereby compelled to take energetic steps to consolidate their strength, although not until they had sustained many defeats. To the period of these struggles belong the herculean exploits of Samson. During the regime of Eli, the last of the judges properly so called, the sway of the Philistines still continued, particularly in the S., and Eli's own sons fell in battle against the enemy. Such misfortunes are always attri- buted by the sacred writers to the relapse of the people into ido- latry, and not to natural causes. At length the prophet Samuel succeeded in reanimating the people, stimulating them to resist the Philistines , and to strengthen the ancient theocratic institutions by the foundation of schools for the prophets and other means. He was soon, however, obliged to yield to the desire of the people, and appoint a political and military ruler over them.

IV. With the coronation of Saul begins the fourth period of the history of the Israelites, that glorious period when their poli- tical constitution was reorganised and consolidated, and when the whole people were united into one Kingdom under one sceptre (B. C. 1075 — 975). This regeneration, however, did not take place

60 HISTORY.

without intestine struggles. Although Saul carried on the war against the Ammonites and Philistines with great bravery, he soon quarrelled with Samuel, whereupon that prophet determined to dethrone him and anoint a new monarch in his stead.

David now comes on the scene. While yet a captain in the army he excited Saul's envy, and was therefore obliged to flee to the mountains , where he assembled a band of followers. With these he roved throughout the land of Judah, and waited until Saul was defeated by the Philistines and perished on Mt. Gilboa (about 1055). David did not yet, however, become king of the whole people, but was prince of Judah only, being probably dependent on the Philistines, to whom at that time nearly the whole of Pa- lestine as far as Jordan had to pay tribute. The northern part of the kingdom (that whicli afterwards formed the kingdom of Israel) was governed by Ishbosheth , the son of Saul, aided by his able general AbneT, who had reconquered for him the kingdom of Maha- naim. It was not until after a protracted struggle, and after Abner and Ishbosheth had been assassinated , that David succeeded in extending his sway over all the tribes of Israel (about 1048).

Owing to David's energy the country increased greatly in power, both as regards its internal development and its foreign relations. But first the land had to a great extent to be conquered afresh and to be purged of foreigners. The city of Jebus was wrested from the Jebusites, and on Mt. Zion David founded a castle which formed the nucleus of his future capital of Jerusalem. He next delivered the country from the Philistines by his victory in the valley of Rephaim, and began to compel the Canaanites who still dwelt in the land to render him obedience. He then humbled the Moabites and Edomites, the ancient enemies of Israel, defeated the Syrians, who had come to the aid of the Ammonites, and caused Rabbah, the capital of the Ammonites, to be besieged and captured. He not only extended his dominions as far as Damascus, but